Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Leadership
There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.
Machiavelli
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Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
'Leadership' a road, a way, the path of a ship at sea - a sense of direction. 'Management' (Latin manus) - a hand, handling a sword, a ship, a horse. 19thC corporatism and industrialisation - managerial agents
Chris Jarvis
What do managers and leaders do? (Zaleznik 1977) Managers focus attention & energy on how things get done their role in events that occur or in a decision-making process. Leaders more concerned with ideas relating to others in more intuitive, empathetic ways what events and decisions mean to people
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Managing Change
Classical management
Managers plan, organise, direct, control resources to achieve objectives. follow formal policies, rules &procedural regulations of their employing organisation (administration > management?) handle and physically direct resources:
money, materials, machinery, equipment, space, facilities, information and technology use of time people
Telling people what to do and how to do it more than vision and giving a sense of direction?
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
Leadership 'messages'
Managers have 'subordinates' and communicate enable others to understand information, instructions or ideas seek order and control Leaders have followers. They envision, influence, inspire. tolerate, promote creativity and imagination Bring order from chaos influence people towards objectives and desire to achieve gain voluntary commitment over compliance win hearts and minds
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
Bennis (1989)
Managers Leaders
Administer and copy Maintain Focus on systems & structure Rely on control Short-range view - bottom line Ask how and when Accept the status quo Classic good soldier Do things right
Innovation and originality Develop Focus on people Inspire trust Long-range view - the horizon Ask what and why Challenge the status quo Own person Do the right things
'the liberation of talent rather than restraint by rule Leaders aim at 'winning hearts and minds'. Mere managers aim at optimising the use of 'resources'. (Peters & Austin, 1985).
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
Common-sense + research link between manager- leadership behaviour & subordinate performance. belief that business success has much to do with 'leadership'. management development programmes emphasise manager and leadership style. Can leadership and problem-solving skills really be developed
from
simulated experienced in a field (outward bound approach)? assessment centre activity (workshop-like selection & development)? coaching and mentoring going on a leadership course? Reading a book, watching the TV? Playing rugby or football?
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Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
a mix of traditional and behavioural science approaches few analytical studies of leadership offer much to the practical manager (Adair) academic doubts textbooks tend to An industry selling
Report 'theories' Some query the validity of particular approaches Imply prescriptions prescriptive 'leadership development' and interpersonal skills packages: motivating, listening, participative problem solving, assertiveness and transforming skills
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
Change involving 'people' is associated with leadership What competencies can be meaningfully described as 'leadership'? Managers & politicians generalise - 'we know it when we see it'. Correlate the skills and success of particular personalities.
Mayo and Hawthorne experiments (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939) 'permissive' leadership behaviour leads to greater output
Kurt Lewin (1939) Autocratic, Laissez faire, Democratic leader styles & the behaviour/performance of youth groups language & 'model' linking styles --> subordinate performance
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
Unitary
One set of values, beliefs, commitments Shared understanding & commitment to objectives One source of leadership Team members - All pulling in the same direction Potential for harmony is assumed if leader communicates well Disagreements the result of misunderstanding Dissidents "rabble" hypothesis
Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
wide ranging question open to question difficult to research - what are the variables? difficult to
separate fact from fiction attribute cause and effect in different contexts and organisational settings over time ambiguity of measures of organisational performance
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
contingency theory situation & L-F relationship group dynamics + VDL the followers
specific to situation
Breadth of application
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
everyday wisdom on common traits. can anyone agree? do some 'qualities' indicate potential & differentiate the 'effective from the ineffective' Wide range of trait descriptors & variety of 'leaders'
(heroes and villains) - difficult to agree on one list
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
more intelligent, dependable, responsible, active and participative socially with higher socioecon. status act more often in different ways, or the same way to different degrees in some activities? give out & ask for more information make more frequent interpretations of events psychometric tests for assessment and selection.
Leadership is learned, although I cannot explain entirely how ... The ability to lead and inspire others is .. more instinctual than premeditated and acquired somehow through the experiences of one's everyday life . the nature & quality of that leadership comes out of innate character & personality
Harold Geneen ITT
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Exercise
Do a separate list for three less effective ones. What factors, or qualities, recur on each list? Select four leaders from national or organisational life and
list their qualities. Which ones keep recurring?
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Managing Change
when leaders behave towards followers in different ways, how much is cause, how much is effect? non-leaders often possess the same traits as leaders. Impossible to compile a list of universal traits.
Bird 1940 identified 79 different traits from 'the literature'.
Only 5% common to => 4 studies
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
leadership as a function of organisation not the individual. small task groups not whole organisation three common functional behaviours: failure in one affects the other two (performance & satisfaction). Leader contributions?
accomplish the task social & emotional needs of group social & emotional needs of individual members.
But one 'leader' may not necessarily perform all roles from 'trouble-shooters' to 'counsellors' - Belbin roles 'Cometh the hour, cometh the man'.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Aware of group
processes, people in group, nuances of behaviour, interpersonal skills
Group maintenance
Individual needs
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Leader may use different style for member (idiosyncrasies) Social exchange - leader-member relationships (dyads) Group = a set of vertical linkages Two sub-groups of relationships In-group members For the leader - reliable, effort, initiative, open, trust and confidence, autonomy Out-group members Calculative, do contract only, distant, tension dyad Leadership - a negotiated VDL role
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Leadership is not a personal quality. Some have innate tendency and drive for high-status
dominance but this is one factor only
Anecdotal, experiential evidence analogy with primitive tribes & animal behaviour Morris (1967, 1969), Ardrey (1961, 1967, 1970). Share common patterns with baboons, chickens, lions?
become leader only in relation to specific group & task group leader emerges because the group thinks that he/she can best help the group
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
If leadership behaviour is situationally and group related what happens when the situation or group changes? Does the organisation function sub-optimally? But we comprehend how leaders may relate to followers & situations ignores wider organisational demands on leader and group.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
"measure" perceptions & style preferences in various settings ---> inventories & development prescriptions effectiveness reflects High task supervisors - productive but high turnover, lower morale High consideration supervisors - high morale, low productivity Over-generalised conclusions
ideal leader = high on initiation + consideration. participative styles preferred
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
technical competence effectiveness in working with other crew members performance under stress conformity to standard operating procedures overall effectiveness as crew members
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Effective leaders fulfil group needs & functions in a situation Frustration, low productivity, absentees &
o o o o o o o o
turnover if formal-L cant perform all these. Formal tasks. instrumental competencies & motives technical know-how, innovation, sense of achievement, concern for quality & customer care Affiliation interaction, support & expressive needs Weak formal-L. Informal alternative emerges If L-behaviour best fits group situation, what if this changes? Can formal leader adapt? will group, dept, nation (led by alternative) perform optimally?
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
programmes for changing style & org. culture 'proprietary' approaches to assessment & training Diagnosis and treatment Blake - Mouton Managerial Grid (1968) Extended with contingency
focus
1.9
Low
1.1
Low
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Tannenbaum-Schmidt Continuum
Boss-centred Follower-centred
use of authority by leader decision making & action freedom for followers
Tells Sells Suggests Consults Joins Delegates Abdicates
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Managing Change
Exercise
different leadership styles. Advantages & disadvantages of a shift to a more 'participative' style? What departments in your organisation appear to operate with different 'leadership cultures'? Account for the differences.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Universality of the style approach? Ambiguous evidence for usefulness of ' style' theories Style changes often assoc. with changes in org. structure + other mgt competencies . Fiedler (1967) questions whether participative,
Chris Jarvis
considerate styles are better than trad. authoritarian or directive. Ineffective L-training - weak transfer of behaviour change from directive to participative. Organisational & work pressures - own & other people's expectations.
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Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Re-structure the work - How? position power - depending on L. assessment, give subordinates nearequal 'rank' (experts) or assign several ranks below Loosen or tighten communication and decision-making leader-member relations - leader can be similar or dissimilar to members (social, educational or ethnic background, values or attitudes) A history of harmony or conflict? Assign a leader whose style fits group
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Leadermember Relations 1 Good 2 Good 3 Good 4 Good 5 Poor 6 Poor 7 Poor 8 Poor
Task structure
Position power Strong Weak Weak Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
More effective leadership style Task centred Task centred Task centred Relationship-oriented Relationship-oriented Relationship-oriented Relationship-oriented Task centred
Favourableness
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
dont try to change people arrange task & power to fit situation
select leaders & identify preferred styles. Diagnose situation and change it for - best fit leader-match concept
But can a manager really choose a style, change 'personality' and a virtuoso with different styles? Leadership training targets this. Are they training pigs to fly? LPC scores may indicate attitudes or personality but not actual behaviour Task performance is sole criterion for evaluating effectiveness (neglects follower satisfaction) L-processes are more sophisticated than this theory. Mixed evidence on validity - other variables ignored However a deeper study which breaks the 'one-best-style' view and addresses contextual variables
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Exam Questions
approach to the development of thinking on leadership and manager development practice. Evaluate how the Fiedler 'contingency and social engineering approach' to leadership could work in any organisation known to you.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Manager executive
Low
Related
Integrated
Missionary Compromiser
Separated
Dedicated
Low
Deserter
High
Task
Autocrat
Is Blake - Mouton (1968) 9.9 style ideal? style is more/less effective in situation
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Four styles
Chris Jarvis
Maturity - an over-simplified
factor - lacks empirical support (Yukl, 1981; Graeff, 1983; Blank et al, 1990).
hypothesised relationships
follower maturity
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Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
influence subordinates' perceptions of the situational factors motivate by focusing on payoffs coaching and direction clarifying goals and expectancies House & Mitchell 1974 reducing frustrations/barriers. Based on expectancy the research is not conclusive theory of motivation
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Managing Change
what causes what in real life? As with style theories, it is difficult to understand why there
should be a favourable climate towards the leader in some groups. It could be argued that 'permissive' leadership is the result, rather than the cause, of group effectiveness.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Davis and Luthans, 1980 Sims and Lorenzi, The New Leadership Paradigm, Sage, 1992
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Many skills and techniques of today's senior executives are being superseded. Competition & changing markets, products, technologies
and expectations dictate adaptability and innovation in strategic decision making, marketing, organisation - and leadership
economic shifts Pacific Rim and China etc. political change South Africa, Soviet Union, Italy, Japan and Europe less natural goodwill and traditional deference towards leaders
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
projecting a particular ethos and culture powerful vision of where their companies or their societies are heading. E.g. Prime Minister Dr Mahathir Mohamed's vision of Malaysia in the year 2020 former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew's vision of Singapore as The Switzerland of the East by 1999. What does this imply for leadership behaviour? Managers and senior executives who are successful leaders will
not only respond to change positively but also actively create change. Leaders with a particular drive, a desire to bring order out of chaos, or, if something is too cosy, to create chaos in order to bring change.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
(1973), Burns (1978), Bass (1985), Bennis & Nanus (1985), Tichy & Devanna (1986) Bass surveyed 70 execs "In your careers, who transformed you in Burns' terms (raised awareness, move up Maslow hierarchy . to transcend self-interest). Answer: usually an organisational superior.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Laissez-faire not really leaders at all, avoid intervention, weak follow up, passivity, potential for confusion Transactional leaders
Management by exception Passive: set standards/objectives, wait for, react to, reluctant intervention. Status quo Active: standards/objectives, monitor, correct, look for error, enforce rules/procedures. Low initiative and risk-taking constructive transactions, contingent rewards agree standards/objectives, feedback, rewards for achievement. outcome: performance that meets expectations. simplified in One-Minute Manager (Blanchard & Johnson 1982) Airport business library
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Mixed evidence - it may be desirable, even necessary. Contingent rewards underpin PRP laissez-faire and transactional in directive, consultative,
participative & delegative styles
Weaknesses
Chris Jarvis
Managing Change
promotes follower desire for achievement & self-development. teams, esprit de corps, autonomy, synergy, belief, value
Intellectual stimulation (IS) Inspirational motivation (IM) ldealised influence (charisma) (II)
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
question status quo, encourage imagination, creativity, logical thinking and intuition. unorthodoxy in character, symbolise innovation. Compare UK motorcycles & Swiss watch market to Sony
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
gift you earn from those who work for you. I have to earn the right to that gift, and continuously re-earn (it).
John Harvey-Jones (ICI)
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Bass's model
effective
LF LF LF 4xI
active
Encouraging TL will project confidence, commitment & competence attract quality staff to the mission & challenge develop people more fully to respond better to competition & change
MbEx-P
ineffective
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Transformational leadership application defect-free parts within six standard deviations concepts, symbols and vision for world-class quality IS, IM, IC in promoting awareness, responsibility and self-monitoring.
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
Chris Jarvis
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Managing Change
'Professional', competent people do not need 'leadership' to perform well and to be motivated. Depends on the individuals, the work, the organisation and its structure, feedback, intrinsic job satisfaction, group cohesion, weak authority or remoteness of the leader
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