An Introduction to Networking

Chapter 1 Updated January 2009

Raymond Pankos Business Data Networks and Telecommunications, 7th edition May only be used by adopters of the book

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Topics:
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Networking Chapter 2: Network Standards Chapter 3: Physical Layer Propagation Chapter 4: Ethernet LANs Chapter 5: Wireless LANs Chapter 6: Telecommunications

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Topics (cont.):
Chapter 7: Wide Area Networks (WANs) Chapter 8: TCP/IP Internetworking Chapter 9: Security Chapter 10: Network Management Chapter 11: Networking Applications

1-1: Black Box View of Networks What Is a Network?

Preliminary definition: A network is a communication system that allows application programs on different hosts to work together
Application 1 Network Application 2

Host A Host B
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Hosts
Hosts
Any computer attached to a network is called a host Including client PCs, servers, mobile phones, etc.
Host Host

Host Cat (Ignores Internet)

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Host

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Networked Applications

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What are Networked Applications?

Applications that can only exist because of networking E-Mail The World Wide Web Facebook YouTube Etc.
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Application Standards
Application standards govern communication between application programs
Allow products from different vendors cannot talk to one another For example, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) standardizes communication between any browser and any Web servers Different applications use different standards E-mail uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and other standards
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Application Standards
Application standards govern communication between application programs
Standards are also called protocols Many standards have protocol in their names Example: Hypertext Transfer Protocol HTTP is an open standard (not controlled by any vendor) Open standards drive down product costs Vendor-controlled standards are called proprietary standards
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1-2: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

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HTTP is a Client/Server Protocol

The client is the browser; it sends a request The server is the Web server; it sends a response Most application standards are client/server protocols
HTTP Request Message (Asks for File) HTTP Response Message (Contains the Requested File)
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Browser

Web server Program

Client Host

Web server 1-10

1-3: The ARPANET and the Internet

ARPANET
Some of the first networked applications were created for the ARPANET Created by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) around 1970 Served researchers doing business with DARPA Connected many sites around the United States

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1-3: The ARPANET and the Internet

Soon, Many Similar Networks Appeared
CSNET in computer science BITNET in business and the social sciences Tower of Babel situationno interconnection This was frustrating to users

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1-3: The ARPANET and the Internet

Next, DARPA Created the Internet in 1980 to Connect Networks Together
Initially, commercial activity was forbidden Became commercial in 1995 Today, the Internet is almost entirely commercial Almost no government money flowing in to run the Internet

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1-4: Traditional Internet Applications

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) E-Mail The World Wide Web (WWW) E-Commerce
Buying and selling on the Internet
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1-5: The Internet Versus the World Wide Web (and Other Applications)

World Wide Web (Application)

E-Mail (Application)

FTP (Application)

Other Applications

The Internet (Transmission System)

The Internet is a global transmission system. The WWW, e-mail, etc., are applications that run over the Internet global transmission system
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1-6: Newer Internet Applications

3

Instant Messaging (IM) Streaming Audio and Video

No need to wait until the entire file is downloaded before beginning to see or hear it

Voice over IP (VoIP)

Telephony over the Internet or other IP networks

Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Applications

Growing processing power of PCs allows PCs to serve other PCs directly
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1-6: Newer Internet Applications

Web 2.0
A hazy term that focuses on using the Internet to facilitate communication among people Including the creation of communities In addition, the users themselves typically generate the content Blogs, wikis, podcasts Examples: community building sites such as MySpace and Facebook, video sharing sites such as YouTube, virtual worlds such as Second Life, and specific information sharing sites, such as craigslist
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1-7: Corporate Network Applications

Corporate Network Applications are Specific to Businesses
Can consume far more corporate network resources than traditional and new Internet applications combined

Transaction-Processing Applications
Simple, high-volume repetitive clerical transaction applications Accounting, payroll, billing, manufacturing, etc. Not all corporate network applications are transactionprocessing applications
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1-7: Corporate Network Applications

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Applications
Serve individual business functions while providing integration between functional modules
Inter-Function Transaction Sales Manufacturing Purchasing Warehousing Inter-Function Transaction Accounting Billing

Inter-Function Transaction

Shipping 1-19

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1-7: Corporate Network Applications

Organizational Communication Applications
E-mail, etc. Groupware Integrate multiple types of communication, organize communication for retrieval, and provide multiple ways to disseminate and retrieve information

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1-7: Corporate Network Applications

Converged Networks
Voice and data traditionally have needed different networks Convergence: Moving voice/video and data networks to a single network Can save the corporation a great deal of money by only having a single network Many technical issues remain

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1-8: File Service

File Server

1. User saves data file to file server, which is backed up nightly 2. Later, user can retrieve the data file from any other computer

3. Others can retrieve the file and even edit it if they are given permission

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1-8: File Service

2. A multiuser version of the program is required 1. A program is Installed on the file server; Less expensive than installing it on many individual PCs File Server

3. For execution, a copy is downloaded from the file server

4. Note that the program is executed on the client PC, not on the file server!

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Quality of Service (QoS)

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1-9: Network Quality of Service (QoS)

Quality of Service (QoS)
Indicators of network performance Speed, etc.

Metrics
Ways of measuring specific network quality-of-service variables The metric for speed is bits per second
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1-10: Transmission Speed

Measuring Transmission Speed
Measured in bits per second (bps) In metric notation: Increasing factors of 1,000 Not factors of 1,024 Kilobits per second (kbps)-note the lowercase k Megabits per second (Mbps) Gigabits per second (Gbps) Terabits per second (Tbps)
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1-10: Transmission Speed

Measuring Transmission Speed
What is 23,000 bps in metric notation? What is 3,000,000,000 bps in metric notation? What is 15,100,000 bps in metric notation?

Occasionally measured in bytes per second

If so, written as Bps, rather than bps Usually seen only in file downloads

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1-10: Transmission Speed

Writing Transmission Speeds in Proper Form
The rule for writing speeds (and metric numbers in general) in proper form is that there should be 1 to 3 places before the decimal point

23.72 Mbps is correct (2 places before the decimal point) 2,300 Mbps has four places before the decimal point, so it should be rewritten as 2.3 Gbps (1 place) 0.5 Mbps has zero places to the left of the decimal point. It should be written as 500 kbps (3 places) Leading zeros do not count
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1-10: Transmission Speed

Writing Transmission Speeds in Proper Form
How to convert 1,200 Mbps to proper form, to 12.02 Gbps
Number 12,020 Suffix Mbps

Must divide number by 1,000 So must multiply suffix by 1,000 12,020 12.02 Mbps Gbps

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1-10: Transmission Speed

Writing Transmission Speeds in Proper Form
How to convert .2346 Mbps to proper form, to 234.6 kbps
Number 0.2346 Multiply by 1,000 0.2346 234.6 Suffix Mbps Divide by 1,000 Mbps kbps

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1-10: Transmission Speed

Writing Transmission Speeds in Proper Form
How should you write the following in proper form? 549.73 kbps 0.47 Gbps 11,200 Mbps .0021 Gbps

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1-10: Transmission Speed

Rated Speed
The speed in bits per second that you should get (advertised or specified in the standard)

Throughput
The speed you actually get Almost always lower than the rated speed

On Shared Transmission Lines

Aggregate throughputtotal throughput for all users Individual throughputthe individual users share of the aggregate throughput
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1-11: Cost
Network Demand, Budgets, and Decisions
Figure 1-12 shows that network demand is growing explosively, while network budgets are growing slowly This creates a cost squeeze that affects every decision Overspending in one area will result in the inability to fund other projects

Figure 1-12
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1-11: Cost
Systems Development Life Cycle Costs
Hardware: Full price: advertised base price plus necessary options Software: Full price: advertised base price plus necessary options Labor costs: Networking staff and user costs Outsourcing development costs Total development investment

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1-11: Cost
Systems Life Cycle (SLC) Costs

System development life cycle (SDLC) versus system life cycle (SLC) SLC has ongoing costs after development Total cost of ownership (TCO) Total cost over entire life cycle SLC includes carrier costs
Carrier pricing is complex and difficult to analyze Must deal with leases, which lock the firm in for months or years
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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

We Have Already Seen Speed and Cost Availability
The percentage of time a network is available for use Our availability last year was 99.9%

Downtime is the amount of time a network is unavailable

Measured in minutes, hours, etc. In July, we had five minutes of downtime.
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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Error Rates
Packet error rate: the percentage of packets lost or damaged Bit error rate: the percentage of bits lost or damaged

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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Latency and Jitter
Latency Delivery delay, measured in milliseconds
For instance, 250 ms is a quarter of a second

Bad for real-time applications

Voice and video Network control messages

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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Latency and Jitter
Jitter Variation in latency between successive packets Makes voice sound jittery
Figure 1-14

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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Service Level Agreements
Customers want guarantees for performance Provider pays penalties if the network does not meet its service metrics guarantees Often specified on a percentage basis At least 100 Mbps 99.5% of the time To guarantee this speed 100% of the time would be impossible, and even 99.99% would be far more expensive
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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Service Level Agreements
Specify a worst case Speed SLAs Low speed is the worst case So an SLA would guarantee a lowest speed that would be delivered E.g., no worse than 1 Mbps) Customer would like higher speeds But wants no less than 1 Mbps
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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Service Level Agreements
Latency SLAs Would an SLA specify a lowest latency or a highest latency? Ask yourself, Which is worse: large latency or small latency? The answer: Large latency is worse So specify a maximum latency No more than 100 ms 99% of the time

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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Service Level Agreements

What would an SLA guarantee for availability?

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1-13: Other Quality-of-Service Metrics

Service Level Agreements

What would an SLA guarantee for error rates?

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1-15: Network Security

Security
Security attacks can be extremely expensive Companies need to install defenses against attacks Chapter 9 discusses network security in depth

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1-15: Network Security

Authentication
Goal is to stop impostors Supplicant attempts to prove its identity to a verifier Example: user logging into a server is a supplicant; the server is a verifier Proofs of identity are called credentials
Credentials: Password

Supplicant: True User?

Verifier: Server

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1-15: Network Security

Cryptographic Protections
Eavesdroppers may intercept your messages Read and even change messages Send new messages impersonating the other side Cryptography is the use of mathematics to protect information in storage or in transit Encryption for confidentiality An eavesdropper cannot read encrypted messages The legitimate receiver, however, can decrypt the message
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1-15: Network Security

Firewall
Examines each packet passing through it Drops and logs provable attack packets It lets other packets get through, even if suspicious
Other Packets Drops Provable Attack Packet
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Passes Arriving Packet

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1-15: Network Security

Host Hardening
Some attacks will inevitably get past safeguards and reach hosts Hosts must be hardened to withstand attacks Hardening is a set of protections we will see in Chapter 9 Example: installing antivirus software on the host Example: downloading security updates

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Switched Networks

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Figure 1-16: Ethernet Switch Operation

In switched networks, Messages are called frames Host A1- wishes to send a frame to Host C3 The frame must pass Through the switch D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F Switch connectors are called ports Ethernet Switch

A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C

B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65

C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F

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Figure 1-16: Ethernet Switch Operation

Ethernet Switch Host A1- sends the frame to the switch UTP D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F

Frame To C3 C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F

A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C

B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65

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Figure 1-16: Ethernet Switch Operation

Switching Table Port Host 10 A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C 13 B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65 15 C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F 16 D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F

Ethernet Switch Frame To C3 UTP D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F The switch reads the destination address in the frame. It looks up the address (C3-) in the switching table. It reads the port number (15) C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65

A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C

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Figure 1-16: Ethernet Switch Operation

Switching Table Port Host 10 A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C 13 B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65 15 C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F 16 D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F The switch sends the

Ethernet Switch

frame out Port 15, to the destination host.

D4-47-55-C4-B6-9F Frame To C3

A1-44-D5-1F-AA-4C

B2-CD-13-5B-E4-65

C3-2D-55-3B-A9-4F

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1-17: Switched Network in a Multistory Building

On each floor, hosts connect to a workgroup switch via wire or wireless transmission

A core switch connects the workgroup switches to each other

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1-17: Switched Network in a Multistory Building

3 Wall Jack Workgroup Switch 2

Client

Server

Workgroup Switch 1 Wall Jack

To WAN

Router

Core Switch

Frames from the client to the server go through Workgroup Switch 2, through the Core Switch, through Workgroup Switch 1, and then to the server 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-56

Figure 1-18: Four-Pair Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Copper Wiring

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1-19: Packet Switching and Multiplexing

In packet switching, the sending host breaks each message into many smaller packets Sends these packets out one at a time Packets are routed to the destination host
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1-19: Packet Switching and Multiplexing

Multiplexing reduces cost. Each conversation only has to pay for its share of the trunk lines it uses
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Routed Networks (Internets)

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1-20: Routed Networks

The 1980s: A Switched Tower of Babel
At first, there were only switched networks Soon, there were many incompatible switched networks Users on different switched networks could not communicate with each other
Switched Network 1 Switched Network 2 SW SW SW
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SW SW

SW

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1-20: Routed Networks

Routers and Routed Networks
Routers were created connect different switched networks together Routed networks are also called internets
Routed Network (Internet) Switched Network 1 Switched Network 2 SW Router

SW SW

SW Router

SW SW 1-62

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1-20: Routed Networks

Routers and Routed Networks
Routers are more complex (and expensive) than switches Designed to work no matter how complex the internet Require more hands-on administration than switches
Routed Network (Internet) Switched Network 1 SW SW SW Router Switched Network 2 SW Router SW SW 1-63

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1-20: Routed Networks

Originally, only switched network addresses existed
Different switched network technologies used different address schemes A universal address scheme was necessary to represent any host on any network in the world.

Cerf and Kahn Created this Universal Address

These were called IP address 32 bits long Usually expressed in dotted decimal notation, such as 128.171.17.13. Host IP addresses are globally unique
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1-20: Routed Networks

So Hosts on an Internet Have Two Addresses Example
The authors computer has the Ethernet address AF-23-B9-C8-4E-38 This is its address on its Ethernet switched network The authors computer also has the IP address 128.171.17.13 This is its globally unique IP address

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1-20: Routed Networks

Packets and Frames
Packets are called frames in switched networks Packets are called packets in routed networks A packet is carried in a frame within each switched network

Packet

Frame
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Routers, Frames, and Packets

A frame arrives at a router
The frame contains a packet

The router takes the packet out of the frame

The router puts the packet into a new frame appropriate for the next network and sends it out The packet continues; the frame does not
Packet Frame 1 Packet Network 2 Router Frame 2 Packet Network 2
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1-21: Routed Network (Internet)

2. Packet travels through three switched networks

1. When a packet is sent, the packet travels all the way from the source host to the destination host 3. The packet travels in three framesone in each switched network
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1-21: Routed Network (Internet)

In this example, the internet has three networks
When a packet is sent, That one packet goes all the way from the source host to the destination host The packet travels in three different frames along the way, one in each network A frame only travels through a single network

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1-22: The Global Internet

1. User PC Host Computer Access Line Router NAP ISP 2. User PCs Internet Service Provider ISP NAP NAP ISP 5. NAPs = Network Access Points 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall Connect ISPs ISP 4. Internet Backbone (Multiple ISP Carriers) 1. Web server Host Computer Access Line

3. Web servers Internet Service Provider 1-70

1-22: The Global Internet

How is the Internet Financed?
Through ISP subscriber payments Residences typically pay $10 to $100 per month Business typically pay thousands or tens of thousands of dollars per month Like the telephone network The telephone network is supported by customer payments to telephone carriers Almost no government money involved

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1-22: The Internet

The TCP/IP Standards
The set of protocols that governs the Internet Standards for both applications and packet delivery Created by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

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1-23: Domain Name System (DNS)

1. Client Host wishes to reach Voyager.cba.hawaii.edu; Needs to know its IP Address

DNS Table Host Name IP Address Voyager.cba.hawaii.edu128.171.17.13 Local DNS Host

2. Sends DNS Request Message The host name is Voyager.cba.hawaii.edu

Voyager.cba.hawaii.ed u 128.171.17.13 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

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1-23: Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS Table 3. DNS Host looks up the target hosts IP address Host Name IP Address Voyager.cba.hawaii.edu128.171.17.13

4. DNS Response Message The IP address is 128.171.17.13 5. Client sends packets to 128.171.17.13

DNS Host

Voyager.cba.hawaii.edu 128.171.17.13 1-74

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LANs and WANs

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1-25: LANs and WANs (Study Figure)

Category Abbreviation Distance Span Local Area Networks LAN Customer premises (apartment, office, building, campus, etc.) Wide Area Networks WAN Between sites within a corporation or between different corporations

Wide Area Network Building LAN Home LAN

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Campus LAN

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1-25: LANs and WANs

Category Can use switched network technology? Local Area Networks Yes Wide Area Networks Yes

Can use routed network Yes, especially in large technology? LANs

Yes, in fact, that is what the Internet is

Many students are surprised that LANs can be routed and that WANs can be switched

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1-25: LANs and WANs

Category Implementation Ability to choose technologies Need to manage technologies Local Area Networks Do it yourself High High Wide Area Networks Must use a carrier with rights of way Low Low

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1-25: LANs and WANs

Category Local Area Networks Wide Area Networks High with arbitrary Changes unrelated to costs

Cost per bit transmitted Low

Therefore, typical transmission speed

Usually 100 Mbps to 10 About 256 kbps to 50 Gbps Mbps

In economics, you learned that when unit price goes up, people will purchase less of the product Because WANs cost much more per bit, companies learn to live with fewer bits per second
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Network Management

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1-26: Network Management

Strategic Network Management
As far as possible, build a coherent roadmap Pay special attention to decisions that lock you in for long periods of time Legacy technologies are technologies selected previously that limit services today For upgrading, service benefits must exceed update costs
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1-26: Network Management

Product Selection with Multicriteria Decision Making
The entire systems development life cycle (SDLC) must be followed For network products, corporations buy instead of make network elements Must use multicriteria decision making (Figure 1-26) Select purchasing criteria (speed, cost, etc.) Give each criterion an importance weight Rate each product on each purchasing criteria
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1-27: Multicriteria Decision Making in Purchase Decisions

Product A Criterion

Product B Criterion Score

Criterion Criterion Criterion Product Weight Rating Score Rating (Max: 5) (Max: 10) (Max: 10) 5 2 5 4 1 9 7 4 8 9 45 14 20 32 9 120
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Functionality Availability Cost Ease of Management Electrical Efficiency Total Score

7 7 9 6 8

35 14 45 24 8 126 1-83

1-28: Network Management

Ongoing Management
After the SDLC ends The most important (and expensive) part of the systems life cycle Often discussed in terms of OAM&P Operations, administration, maintenance, and provisioning

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1-28: Network Management

Ongoing Management (OAM&P)
Operations Moment-by-moment traffic management Network operations center (NOC) using SNMP (see Figure 1-29)

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1-28: Network Management

Ongoing Management (OAM&P)
Maintenance Fixing things that go wrong Conducting preventative maintenance Should be separate from the operations staff

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1-28: Network Management

Ongoing Management (OAM&P)
Provisioning (Providing Service) Includes physical installation Includes setting up user accounts and services Reprovisioning when things change Deprovisioning when accounts and services are no longer permitted Collectively extremely expensive
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1-28: Network Management

Ongoing Management (OAM&P)
Administration High end: planning Middle: analysis of operations to indicate needed changes Low: paying bills, managing contracts, etc.

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