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BIOLOGY SEM 2 2009/10

FQAH 0113 PHYSIOLOGY OR ORGANISM FQAH 0114 GENETIC & DNA TECHNOLOGY

MJ, NHH, MHM

AMM, KH, KAR

NERVOUS & HORMONAL COMMUNICATION


The Organization of Nervous System Neurone Neuroglia Properties of Nerve Impulses Resting Potential Action Potential Synapse Structure of Synapse

Synaptic Transmission Mechanism of Drug Action Neuromuscular Junction Skeletal Muscle Structure of The Skeletal Muscle Sliding Filament Theory Central Nervous System Brain Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System Somatic & Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous System Vertebrate Reflex Arch
Receptor Eye - Structure & Function of The Eye - Structure of The Retina Rod & Cone - Structure of Rod & Cone - Photoreception in Rod & Cone

Ear - Structure and Function of the ear - Coclear - Hearing Physiology - Vestibular Apparatus - Semicircular Canal Hormone Types of Endocrine Glands & Hormones Produced Mechanism of Hormone Action

REFERENCES 1. Biology For STPM. Volume 1. Kamaludin et al. Thomson Learning. 2005

2. Biology for Matriculation. Semester 1. 2nd Edition Updated. Lee Soon Ching et al. Oxford Fajar. 2009

NERVOUS COMMUNICATION
The nervous system - centre for body control and communication network 3 functions of the nervous system: Detect any changes (stimuli) that occur inside and outside the body Define the changes Respond to the defined changes

Terms and Definition


Stimulus any change in the external or internal

environment which provokes a response


Receptor specialized cells that detect a stimulus

Neuron cells which transmit nerve impulses


Effector organ that respond to the stimuli and

bring about a response

Receptor
specialized cells that detect a stimulus

CNS
Define changes

Stimulus
any change in the external or internal environment which provokes a response

Effector

organ that responds to the stimuli and brings about a response

Nervous system

Endocrine system

Enzyme system

maintain a stable internal environment of the body

The organization of the nervous system consists of 2 types of cells


1. Neuron - basic functional unit of nervous system - able to generate and transmit nerve impulses 2. Neuroglia - supporting cells

Neuron (Nerve cell)

Divided into 3 parts:


1. Cell body 2. Dendrites 3. Axons

1. Cell body @ sentron @ soma


Carries out maintenance activity, i.e., synthesizes materials required by neurons Possesses organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. Cytoplasm contains Nissls granules rich in RNA (for protein synthesis) Various shapes, e.g., sphere or pyramid

2. Dendrites

Short extensions from the cell body Carry impulse towards the cell body

3. Axons Long extensions which carry impulses away from the cell body Terminal end branches with swollen endings known as the synaptic knob Possess cytoplasm axoplasm surrounded by axomembrane

Mylenated axon Cell body

Dendrites

Structure of a neuron

Neuroglia Cell

Provides structural support and metabolism for neuron

E.g., Schwann cells form myelin sheath surrounding the axon

Myelin sheath
- between 2 nodes of Ranvier - increase the speed of impulse transmission

Nodes of Ranvier
small uncovered parts of a myelinated axon between the myelin sheaths

3 Types of neurons according to function:


1. Sensory neuron (afferent neuron) Long dendrites and short axons Carries impulses from receptor to CNS 2. Interneuron (in CNS) Connects the sensory neuron to the motor neuron

3. Motor neuron (efferent neuron) Short dendrites and long axons Receive nerve impulses from interneuron and transmit to effector, e.g., muscles and glands

Types of neuron according to function

3 Types of Neuron According to Structure


Depends on the number of extensions leaving the cell body 1. Unipolar

Possesses a single extension from the cell body Characteristic of invertebrate nervous systems and sensory neurons

2. Bipolar Possesses 2 extensions: dendrites and axons, e.g., neuron in the retina

3. Multi-polar Possesses a few extensions from the cell body, generally in mammalian nervous systems, e.g., pyramid cells, Purkinje cells and motor neuron

Impulse Transmission

1. Along the axon - as an electrical signal

Ii2. Across the synapse as a chemical signal

Impulse transmission along the axon


1. Resting Potential
2. Action Potential (depolarization and repolarization)

1. Resting Potential

The potential difference which exists across the axon membrane when the neuron is not conducting an impulse or is at rest
It is caused by the unequal distribution of charged ions inside and outside the neuron membrane (inside more negatively charged relative to the outside) axon is polarized

No stimulation axon at rest axon is polarized

Axon is polarized when it is in resting potential Inner membrane vely charged [Na+] low, [K+] high Presence of anion: ClNegatively charged protein and organic phosphate Outer membrane +vely charged [Na+] high, [K+] low, Cl- also present These differences will cause electrical potential difference across membrane - resting potential ( 70mV)

Lipid bilayer

Distribution of ions across the axomembrane

How The Resting Potential Is Maintained


3 types of ions play significant roles to determine the resting potential Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) Large negatively-charged organic molecules (amino acids and proteins) Involve 2 mechanisms: K+/Na+ pump Non-voltage gated K+/Na+ channel

Na+

Voltage gated Non-Voltage gated Na+/K+ pump Na+/K+ channel Na+/K+ channel

The different concentrations of these types of ions are maintained by an interplay of several factors:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Diffusion Electrical attractions and repulsions Active transport across the cell membrane Selective permeability of the axon membrane to these three ions.

During the resting potential, Na+/K+ pump actively transports Na+ and K+ across the membrane against their concentration gradients The presence of more non-voltage gated K+ channels compared to those for Na+ more K+ diffuse out than Na+ diffuse in. Always some Na+ leaking in and this is reduced by the Na+/K+ pump 3 Na+ are transported to the outside membrane for every 2 K+ brought into the cytoplasm of the axon. These processes always more K+ inside so the resting potential is maintained almost entirely by this K+ difference.

Presence of anions, e.g., proteins in the cell which are too large to diffuse out The Na+/K+ voltage gated channels are both closed The net result outer membrane is +ve compared to inner membrane Resting potential is established

2. Action Potential

An action potential is the change in the potential difference across an axon membrane which occurs during the passage of a nerve impulse Nerve impulse - an information that passes along the axon, changes the potential difference across the membrane and generate an action potential - only can be transmitted as a series of electrical signals when the stimuli > threshold intensity (> 50 mV).

The action potential has 3 phases (2 - 3 msec)


1. 2. 3.

Depolarization Repolarization Hyperpolarization

1.

Depolarization (1 msec)
Stimulus reaches a resting neuron, some voltage-gated Na channels open Na+ diffuse into the axon The inside of the neuron becomes more positive relative to the outside The axon membrane is depolarized

More gates open more Na+ diffuse into the axon further depolarization When the membrane potential difference reaches a threshold value, many more gates open rapid diffusion of Na+ sudden increase in the membrane potential difference (+35 mV)
The action potential stimulates other Na channels down the axon to open, thus causing the impulse to travel down the axon

Ii2

2. Repolarization

Reversal in polarity to +35 mV Na channels close Voltage-gated K channels open of the axon

voltage-gated

K+ diffuse out

The outside of the neuron becomes more positive relative to the inside The axon membrane is repolarized Action potential alters from +35 to -70 mV

3. Hyperpolarization

Voltage-gated K channels are slow to close excess K+ leave the axon Inner membrane becomes more ve voltage falls slightly below -70 mV hyperpolarization the

Within a few msec, voltage-gated K channels close Resting potential (-70 mV) is re-established

Factors Affecting Impulse Transmission


1.

Diameter of the axon - the larger the axon diameter the faster the speed of impulse transmission - the smaller the diameter, the greater the resistance created by the axoplasm lower the speed of impulse transmission

2. Myelinated neurone - an action potential can only be generated at nodes of Ranvier because Na+ and K+ are able to move across the membrane
Hence, action potential jumps from 1 node of Ranvier to another along the axon increases the speed of impulse transmission

Propagation of nerve impulse

Propagation of Nerve Impulse

Information is transmitted along a neuron as a nerve impulse which consists of a series of action potentials When a neuron is stimulated, Na+ flow into the neuron depolarization of the inner membrane action potential is generated

This part of the membrane is more positive relative to the adjacent part (still at resting potential)

The difference in potential between the active and resting membrane parts creates a localized electric current (LEC)

LEC stimulates the adjacent part (2nd part) of the membrane Na+ flow in, depolarize and generate a second action potential

After the action potential, the first part of the membrane is repolarizing as K+ flow out This process is repeated Impulse is propagated as a series of repolarization and depolarization along the axon

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Refractory Period
Period after an action potential has passed, i.e., period when axon is not able to transmit a new impulse (5 10 msec) 1. Absolute refractory period

the axon membrane is unable to respond to another stimulus action potential is not generated 1 msec

2. Relative refractory period


Resting potential is gradually restored by the Na+/K+ pump 5 msec

All or Nothing Law


All action potentials are of the same amplitude, i.e., after threshold is reached, the size of the action potential produced remains constant and is independent of the intensity of the stimulus

Synapse
Connection site between 1. neuron-neuron 2. neuron-muscle

Synaptic knob (at the end of


axons) contain mitochondria and synaptic vesicles Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitter important in impulse transmission Neurotransmitter - small chemicals found in the synaptic vesicle - helps to transmit an impulse across the synapse small gap between the connection synaptic cleft (20 nm)

Neuron that carries impulse to synapse presynaptic neuron covered by presynaptic membrane. Neuron that carries impulse away from synapse - postsynaptic neuron covered by postsynaptic membrane.

Synaptic cleft
Membrane receptor

Postsynaptic membrane Presynaptic membrane Synaptic vesicle

Impulse transmission across the synapse

Mechanism of Impulse Transmission Across A S

Impulse that reach synaptic knob stimulates opening of Ca channels Ca2+ (in the interstitial fluid) enter the knob Stimulate binding of vesicles and presynaptic membrane Vesicles release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (each synaptic vesicle contains 10 thousand molecules of neurotransmitter)

Neurotransmitter binds with receptor on postsynaptic membrane Change configuration of protein on postsynaptic membrane Na channels open

Na+ enter and depolarize postsynaptic membrane excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

If EPSP reaches the threshold level, action potential is generated and transmitted to the 2nd neuron/muscle

*If acetycholine stays in the receptor sites, Na channels remain open - continually producing action potentials

Mechanism of impulse transmission across the synapse

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To prevent continuous production of action

potential remove the neurotransmitter (nt) i. Direct uptake of nt e.g., noradrenaline is transported back into the synaptic knob and inactivated by the enzyme monoamine oxidase ii. Enzymes are released to degrade nt e.g., enzyme acetylcholinesterase splits acetylcholine into acetyl coenzyme A and choline taken up by the presynaptic neurone combined to reform acetylcholine

Two main neurotransmitters used in the vertebrate nervous system are 1. Acetylcholine Neurons releasing acetylcholine are called cholinergic neurons. Found in most synapses 2. Nonadrenalin (norepinephrine) Neurone releasing nonadrenalin are called adrenergic neurons. Found specifically in the synapses of the sympathetic nervous system

Both nt can be inhibitory or excitatory, depending

on the type of receptor


Other neurotransmitters:

Dopamine, serotonin (brain), glutamate, etc.

Functions of Synapse
1. 2.

3. 4.

Transmits information between neurons Transmits nerve impulses in one direction because nt are only released by the presynaptic neuron Filters out low-level stimuli of limited importance Protects the effectors from damage by overstimulation, i.e., by action potentials continually being generated

Drugs

Chemical substances that cause changes in the

natural chemical environment and functioning of the body


Can be ingested, injected, inhaled or put into the

body in some other ways


Used in medicine to help prevent, diagnose and

treat diseasse or injuries

Psychoactive drugs (PAD) interfere with the nervous system and cause changes in the mental state and behaviour Overdose of PAD over dependence (addiction) of the drug
Affect the nervous system by altering the mechanism of synaptic transmission

Examples: i. Cocaine blocks re-uptake of nt e.g. dopamine ii. Curare binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane iii. Organophosphate insecticides & nerves gases block acetylcholinesterase that degrades the nt thus allowing acetylcholine to remain active for longer periods.

Mechanism of Drug Action Drugs are categorized as i. excitatory psychoactive drugs (amplify synaptic transmission) ii. inhibitory psychoactive drugs (decrease synaptic transmission)

i. Excitatory psychoactive drugs work in various ways: (a) Mimic a natural neurotransmitter, fitting into the same receptors e.g. nicotine mimics acetylcholine.

(b) Interfere with the normal enzyme breakdown of a neurotransmitter.

The drug (a)/neurotransmitter (b) stays in the receptors & continues to stimulate the postsynaptic membrane - causes continuous stimulation & contraction of muscles E.g. Organophosphate insecticides.

ii. Inhibitory psychoactive drugs work in various ways:

(a) They prevent the release of a neurotransmitter E.g. Botulinum is a poisonous toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium. It will stop respiration muscles contraction & resulted in impossible breathing

(b) They block the action of a neurotransmitter at the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. E.g. Curare is a natural poison. It blocks the action of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions stop muscle contraction.

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Skeletal Muscle Structure Skeletal muscle is made up of hundreds of muscle fibres.

Each muscle fibre - surrounded by connective tissue endomysium. - long, cylindrical in shape & arranged parallel to each other - consists hundreds of myofibrils - cytoplasm sarcoplasm - contain many mitochondria

Myofibrils - thin threads that arranged parallel to one another. - made up of alternating light & dark bands due to overlapping strands of contractile protein (myosin & actin). - each contractile unit sarcomere Sarcomere (myofibril basic unit) i. e. region between one Z line & another Z line

Myofibrils consist of: Thick filament are composed of protein - myosin - long tail - globular head site for ATPase enzyme.

Thin filament are composed of protein - actin helical backbone consist of 2 strand. - contain 2 other proteins (tropomyosin & troponin).

Sarcoplasm of muscle fibre consists of i. longitudinal interconnected tubules between the myofibrils - sarcoplasmic reticulum.
ii. Transverse tubules which are invaginations of sarcolemma membrane T tubules.

Ends of sarcoplasmic reticulum form vesicles terminal cisternae - involved in the intake & release of Ca2+.

Thick filament

Thin filament

Under light microscope - muscle fibres show a pattern of alternating light & dark bands.

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Structure of Neuromuscular Junction & Impulse Transmission

The NMJ a synapse between a motor neurone & skeletal muscle fibres

Each muscle fibre has a region motor end plate where the axon of the motor neurone divides & forms fine branches ending in synaptic knobs. The NMJ includes the motor end plate & the synaptic knob.

On stimulation, the synaptic knob release Ach which binds to the receptors on the sarcolemma. This increases the permeability of the sarcolemma to Na+.
This depolarises the postsynaptic muscle fibre & triggers an AP. The AP passes along the sarcolemma through the T tubules system, deep down into the miofibril & results in muscle contraction.

How impulse is transmitted across the synapse and causes muscle contraction

The Sliding Filament Theory suggested by Huxley & Hanson 1. Muscle at rest Outside of muscle membrane +ve charge. Inside of muscle membrane -ve charge.
2. Muscle stimulation Nerve impulse (action potential) travels along a motor neurone & reaches the neuromuscular junction.

Acetylcholine (Ach) is released into the synaptic cleft, diffuses to the sarcolemma & bind with receptor on the sarcolemma.
When action potential (AP) reaches it threshold value, an AP is created in the muscle fibre.

Ach in the cleft is then hydrolyzed & the products are reabsorbed into the motor neurone.

AP travels along the sarcolemma, spreads into the T tubules & stimulates the release of Ca2+ from the cisternae terminal at sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca2+ diffuse out to the sarcoplasm.

3. Actomyosin-Cross bridges formation Ca2+ bind to troponin & alter its shape.

Tropomyosin strand moved to the sides & exposed the binding sites. A molecule of ATP binds to myosin head. ATPase is activated. ATP ADP + Pi + ENERGY

The energy is transferred to myosin head & changes the myosin from low energy configuration high energy configuration.
Myosin heads attach to the actin binding sites actomyosin-cross bridges.

4. Slides ADP & Pi are released.

Myosin head returns to it low-energy configuration. It bends & propels the actin towards the centre of sarcomere. Actin & myosin filaments slides between each other.

5. Breakdown of the Actomyosin-Cross bridges A new ATP molecule binds to each myosin head.

Each myosin head detaches from the actin & returns to it low energy configuration. Troponin reverts to its original shape & tropomyosin block the binding site on the actin filaments.

Myosin heads are ready to bind to the next binding site on the actin filaments.

6. Repolarization After contraction, Ca2+ is actively absorbed back into the terminal cysterna.

Muscle relaxed.

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Nervous System Communication network and centre of body control. Found in all vertebrates and non-vertebrates organisms. The nervous system can be divided into 2: 1. Central Nervous System (CNS) (CNS) Brain Spinal cord

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The nerves originate in the brain & spinal cord & spread throughout the body Somatic nerves Autonomic nerves

Central Nervous System Brain The most complex structure. Surrounded by meninges membrane. Encased in bony skull. Made up of i. grey matter & form the cerebral cortex, the folded outer layer of the cerebrum. ii. white matter & found on the inside of the brain.

There are cavities ventricles Ventricles i. continuous with the central canal of spinal cord ii. richly supplied with blood capillaries iii. fill with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Functions of the CSF i. source of nutrition & respiratory gases for the neural tissue. ii. removal of waste products. iii. intracerebral transport of neuropeptides & hormones. iv. protective function a shock absorber.

The functions of the brain: i. Receiving sensory information from both inside & outside the body. ii. Processing & coordinating the response to this information. iii. Initiating voluntary activities such as locomotion. iv. Reasoning, learning & memory.

Parts of the brain

The 5 lobes of the cerebrum i. Frontal lobe Mental processes & motor regulation towards body parts ii. Parietal lobe Information on stimulus are integrated iii. Temporal lobe Language and hearing iv. Occipital lobe Vision v. Insular lobe Smell

Spinal Cord Extends from the brainstem to the lower back.

Enclosed & protected by the vertebrae which form the vertebral column

Pairs of spinal nerves - originate in the spinal cord & extend to parts of the body below the head.
- consist of i. ascending tracts i.e. sensory neurone carrying impulses towards the spinal cord. ii. descending tracts i.e. motor neurone carrying impulses away from the spinal cord.

When viewed in section, the spinal cord consists of 2 areas: i. the central grey matter containing the cell bodies of interneurone & motor neurone.
ii. the outer white matter containing myelinated axons. iii. in the centre of the grey matter central canal which contains CSF.

Possess 33 vertebrae i.e. cervical at the neck (7) thoracic at the thorax (12) lumbar at the abdomen (5) sacrum (5) & coccygeal (4)
Produces 31 pairs of spinal nerves i.e. cervical nerves (8) thoracic nerves (12) lumbar nerves (5) sacral nerves (5) & coccygeal nerves (1)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) PNS connecting the brain & spinal cord to the receptor, muscles & glands.

43 pairs of nerves - 12 pairs connected to the brain cranial nerves - 31 pairs connected to the spinal cord spinal nerves

Divided into - somatic nervous system control activities that are usually voluntary E.g. contraction of leg muscles for walking
- autonomic nervous system (ANS) control activities which are normally involuntary E.g. heart rate, breathing rate & sweating

ANS has 2 division sympathetic & parasympathetic. Sympathetic nerves have an excitatory effect & parasympathetic tends to inhibit or decrease body activity.

Differences between somatic & autonomic nervous system Table 1 Differences between sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system Table 2

NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN SPINAL CORD

Cranial Nerves
Afferent Nerve Fibres (Sensory neuron)

Spinal Nerves
Efferent Nerve Fibres (Motor neuron) Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic NS

Somatic Nervous System


Parasympathetic NS

Reflex Action A reflex action - a rapid automatic response to a stimulus which is involuntary i.e. not under conscious control.

Reflex actions produce a fast response which is important to prevent body damage. E.g. Human knee jerk & withdrawal of hand away from fire.

Reflex Arc Structure A reflex arc - specific pathway taken by the nerve impulses in a reflex action.

Involves a series of structures including receptor, neurones & effector. Receptors - sensory cells that scattered in the skin or special sensory organ eyes - received stimuli. - convert energy associated with a stimulus to an electrical signal i.e. nerve impulse.

Example 1: Irritation on the skin Involves 3 neurones & 2 synapses. The receptors on the skin received stimulation. The receptor generates an impulse. Impulse spinal cord. The impulse passes through interneurone in the sensory neurone grey matter flexor muscles contraction of arm occurs.
motor neurone

Example 2: The Human Knee Jerk Reflex Involves 2 neurones & 1 synapse.

The knee tendon is given a light tap with a rubber hammer. Stretches the muscle attached to the tendon above the patella.

The muscle spindle detects the stretching &

generates impulse sensory neurone spinal cord


effector straighten the leg
motor neurone

Receptor A structure which detects a particular type of stimulus.

Receptor is sensory cells which are branches of dendrites or free nerve ends of sensory neurone.

The sensory cell may be single (receptor cell), scattered uniformly or a group of receptor cells (sense organ) e.g. mammals eyes and ears.

Usually can be found i. integumen detect changes of external environment. ii. in the body detect internal changes e.g. [CO2] in blood & level of muscle contraction.
Able to convert stimuli electrical impulses in nerve cell & transmitted through sensory neurone to the brain or spinal cord.

5 main categories of receptor depending on the nature of the stimulus i. Chemoreceptors - detect chemical stimuli when we taste or smell a particular substance ii. Photoreceptors - detect light rays iii. Thermoreceptors - detect changes in temperature iv. Mechanoreceptors - detect pressure, movements & vibrations v. Electroreceptors - detect electrical fields mainly in fish

Types of Sensory Receptor 1. Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation caused by stimuli such as pressure, touch, stretch, motion & sound.

Bending or stretching of mechanoreceptors plasma membrane increases the membranes permeability to Na+ which results in depolarization of sensory neurone & generation of action potential

2. Chemoreceptors Include both general receptors that transmit information about the solute conc of a solution & specific receptors that respond to individual kinds of molecules.

E.g. Male silkworm moth


-

The stimulus molecule binds to a specific site on the membrane of receptor cell, - initiates changes in membrane permeability, - depolarizes the receptor cell & - generate an action potential able to detect

Chemoreceptor in male silkworm are highly sensitive to female sex pheromone

3. Electroreceptor E.g. Some fishes generate electric currents & use electroreceptors to locate prey that disturb those currents.

3. Electromagnetic Receptors Detect various forms of electromagnetic energy, such as visible light, electricity & magnetism.

E.g. Snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors to detect body heat of prey against a colder background
Two receptors (eye & infrared receptor) in rattlesnake & other pit vipers

4. Thermoreceptors Respond to heat or cold, help regulate body temperature by signaling both surface & body core temperature.

For heat/warmth receptors, the rate of impulses discharge from these receptors increases as the temperature rises. For cold receptors, the rate of impulses discharge from these receptors increases as the temperature falls.

How Receptor Cells Work

On receiving a stimulus, Na+ move into the receptor cells, depolarize & form generator potential
If GP reaches threshold level, action potential is generated in the nerve fibre & transmit to the brain for response.

Schematic diagrams show the development of a generator potential & generation of action potential when a receptor cell is stimulated

How Receptor Cells Work On receiving a stimulus, the sensitive part of the receptor cell develops a local non-conducted positive charge generator potential.

GP is caused by depolarization of the membrane surrounding the receptor cells, due to the movement of Na+ ions into the receptor cells. On receiving a stimulus, Na+ move into the receptor cells, depolarize & form generator potential

Tongue Taste Receptor* Taste or gustation is detected by taste receptor situated in microvilli projecting from sensory cells sunk into goblet-shape organs taste buds. 4 taste sensation sweet (as elicited by glucose & other simple sugars), sour (acid), salty (NaCl & other salts) & bitter (plant toxins, including alkaloids). The production of a generator potential depends upon substances (fluids) either penetrating the receptor membrane or attaching to specific receptor sites.

Nose Olfactory Receptor* Olfactory receptors detect water soluble or volatile substances. Axon lead into one of two olfactory bulbs & synapse with a group of cell that sort out the components of given scent.
olfactory tract

Scent information

cerebrum

The Eye* Human eye is a complex organ containing photoreceptors. It is able to - control the amount of light that enters the eye. - refract light rays in order to focus them. - transduce light energy into action potential. Involved eyeball, optic nerves & brain
Structure & Function of The Eye (Figure 15)

Retina Innermost layer of the eye. 2 types of photoreceptor cells sensitive to lights i.e. rods and cones. Rods & cones transduce light energy nerve impulse Both possess the same basic structure & function. 120 million rods & 6 million cones.

Differences between rods & cones (Table 3)

Cone cell Rod cell

Sensitivity - ability to detect low light levels. - able to see in condition of low light intensity. - rods are more sensitive than cones.
Acuity - the degree of detail which can be seen. - ability to distinguish between 2 points which are close together. - cones have better visual acuity than rods.

Synaptic network : many rods to one bipolar neurone high sensitivity

Single connection : one cone to one bipolar neurone high acuity

Structure of Rod & Cone Cells i. Outer segment - Light-sensitive region containing photosensitive pigments. - Region where light energy generator potential. - Rod contains up to 1000 membrane line vesicles & rhodopsin is embedded in it. - Cone is made up of infoldings of the outer membrane to form vesicles & iodopsin is embedded in it.

ii. Inner segment - Active metabolic region.


- Contains many mitochondria to provide the energy to resynthesize the photosensitive pigments & process vision. - Contains nucleus & ribosomes to synthesize proteins for the production of membranous vesicle & photosensitive pigment.

iii. Synaptic region - Photoreceptor cell form synapse with bipolar neurone which synapse with ganglion cell (neurone of optic nerve).
- Bipolar neurone connect one cone to one ganglion cell to provide high visual acuity. - Bipolar neurone connect a number of rods to one ganglion cell (synaptic network) to provide high sensitivity.

Rods & cones (synapse) bipolar cells (synapse) ganglion cells axons from ganglion grouped together optic nerve in the brain.

Focusing Light Onto Retina Lights from the object will pass through the eye lenses that focus the light to the retina.

Image formation on the retina requires 4 processes: i. Refraction of light light rays are refracted when passes through medium that differ in density with air i.e. cornea, acqueous humour, lense & vitreus humour.

Accomodation the elastic lense changes its shape to focus objects onto the retina depending on the distance of the observed object. E.g. The light from a near object can be clearly seen if the muscles of cilliary body contracts, suspensory ligaments relaxed, lense becomes convex.

iii.Constriction of iris - Light will fall on the retina. - Protects the eye from sudden light exposure or brightness.
iv. Focus - movement of both eyes so that both will focus to the same object.

Photoreception in A Rod Cell Rods sensitive to low light intensity.


Light detection depends on pigment rhodopsin. Rhodopsin consists of a protein, opsin joined with retinal (retinene).

When rhodopsin absorbs light the retinal changes its shape & no longer attach to the opsin bleaching depolarization of rod membrane.
A generator potential is created.

If the generator potential reach a threshold level, an action potential is generatedoptic nerve Optic center in the brain Resynthesis of Rhodopsin

Rhodopsin must be resynthesized from the opsin & retinal.

Requires energy from ATP provided by mitochondria.

Photoreception in Cones Cones high light intensity color receptor. Photosensitive pigment iodopsin. Iodopsin - exists in three different forms & types. - less easily broken down & takes longer to be resynthesized - can be resynthesized in the light enable to see in light conditions. Photoreception is similar to rods.

Dark Adaptation An experience when we enter a dimly lit room from bright light.

At first nothing can be seen, but gradually we begin to make out our surroundings.

Vision becomes possible when the photosensitive pigment, previously broken down by the bright light, has been resynthesized.

Bright environment
- Cones are responsive because bright light is needed to breakdown iodopsin for light/day vision - Rods are unresponsive because bright light breakdown all rhodopsin molecules.

Dark environment
- Cones are unresponsive because dim light unable to breakdown iodopsin for dark/night vision - Rods are responsive because dim light breaks down rhodopsin molecules for dark/night vision

Bright environment enter Dark environment - Cones are responsive -At the beginning (a few sec),
because bright light is needed to breakdown iodopsin for light/day vision - Rods are unresponsive because bright light breakdown all rhodopsin molecules. unable to see the surroundings because during this time, bleached rhodopsin is resynthesized (to form rhodopsin) - After a few sec, rhodopsin become fully responsive - dim light breakdown rhodopsin GP AP

Cones day vision (light vision)

Rods night vision (dark vision)

Questions: 1. During day time & doing work in dark room? 2. During night time & doing tutorial in study room?

Trichromatic Theory (Color Vision Theory) There are 3 types of iodopsin located in 3 different types of cones & sensitive to 3 wavelenghts.

Each type responds to one of blue, green & red light.

Color vision depends on the primary colors mixture i.e blue, green & red in various ratios.

Ear Function - hearing cochlea. - body balance - vestibular apparatus & semicircular canal. Structure of The Ear*

Cochlea Divided longitudinally into 3 parallel canals: i. The vestibular canal connecting with oval window. ii. The middle canal consist of corti organ. ii. The tympanic canal connecting with round window. These canals are separated by: i. Reissners membrane between the vestibular & middle canals. ii. Basilar membrane between the middle & tympanic canals.

Filled with fluid Endolymph in the middle canal. Perilymph in the vestibular & tympanic canal.
Into the middle canal, projects a tectorial membrane run parallel with the basilar membrane.

Receptor cells - lies between these 2 membranes their bases rooted in the basilar membrane connected to nerve fibre join to auditory nerve. The other end is the sensory hairs which just reach the tectorial membrane.

Hearing Physiology Sound waves (compression & decompression of air) amplified & directed by pina into the ear canal tympanic membrane vibrates.

Vibration detected by ossicle bone which will increase & transfer the vibration to the oval window.

Movement of stapes forward & backward oval window moves in the same direction

displacement of perilymph fluid in the vestibular canal movement of Reissner membrane displaces fluid in the middle canal moves the basilar membrane sensory hairs of the receptor cell repeatedly brush tectorial membrane.

Impulse is generated in the receptor cell & transmitted to the auditory nerves & auditory centre in the brain.

Two structures involved in equilibrium:


i. Semicircular canal

ii. Vestibular apparatus

i. Semicircular Canal Arranged in 3 spartial planes.

Detect changes in the rate of rotation or angular movement of the head i.e. up, down & sides. Ampulla (cristae ampularis) - a structure at the end of each canal - contains receptor cells with hairs.

- The hairs are embedded in dome-shaped gelatinous cap cupula.

When head position changes, cupula will be deflected to opposite direction of head movement. Endolymph fluid exert pressure to the cupula which detected by sensory hair. Impulse is generated in the receptor cells transmitted to the aference nerve fibre the brain to be defined & ready for action.

ii. Vestibular Apparatus Semicircular canal are connected to 2 cavities - the utricle & saccule.

Detect changes in head position relative to gravity.

Macula

- a structure can be found in the utricle & saccule. - consist of receptor hair cells embedded in jellylike substance which contains calcium carbonate crystal otholite.

A change in head position relative to gravity movement of otholite detected by the sensory hairs. Impulse is generated in the receptor cells transmitted to the aference nerve fibre the brain to be defined and ready for action.

Nervous System Diseases & Disorders Schizophrenia - hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions & other symptoms.

Depression - manic (high-mood) & depressive (low-mood) phases. - major depression patients have a persistent low mood.

Alzheimers disease an age-related dementia in which neurofibrillary tangles & senile plagues form in the brain. Parkinsons disease - a degenerative disorders of central nervous system that often impairs the sufferers motor skills & speech.

Hormonal Communication Helps in controlling the internal environment.

Assist body in facing critical condition such as during infection, stress, famine, etc. Function in i. body growth and development. ii. reproduction including gamete formation, fertilization, nutrition & delivery process.

Hormones chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands (glands without ducts) directly into extracellular fluid to the blood circulation & sent to whole body reaction.

required in minute quantities.

The Endocrine System Coordinate slower but longer-acting responses to stimuli such as stress, dehydration & low blood glucose levels.

Regulate long-term developmental processes by informing different parts of the body such as how fast to grow or when to develop the characteristics that distinguish male from female etc.

The Nervous System Conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons.

These rapid messages control the body movement in response to sudden environmental changes - E.g. pull away hand from hot pan

Similarities between Endocrine System and Nervous System Provide communication in the organism body. E.g. ES - [Glucose] in blood pancreas NS - Reflex action receptor & effector Involve transmission of messages generated by a stimulus and resulting a reaction. Target organ of hormones are similar to nerve effector. E.g. ES uterus, mammary glands NS muscles & glands

(Table 4)

Overlap Between Endocrine & Nervous Regulation The endocrine & nervous system often function together in maintaining homeostasis, development & reproduction.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones & specialized secretory cells (neurosecretory cells) derived from nervous tissue secrete neurohormones.

E.g. Adrenaline - as a neurotransmitter is released by nervous stimulation in response to physical or mental stress. - functions in the body as the so-called fight-orflight

- as a hormone when [G] metabolisme of glycogen (in the liver) and tricylglycerines (fat tissue) [G]

Hormonal Control Pathways 3 major types - endocrine, - neurohormone - neuroendocrine

Relationship Between the Hypothalamus & Pituitary Gland Hypothalamus contains different sets of neurosecretory cells. Some produce direct-acting hormones that are stored in & released from the posterior pituitary. Other hypothalamic cells produce inhibiting/stimulating hormones that are transported to the anterior pituitary gland. These hormones control the release of other hormones from nonpituitary glands.

Pituitary Hormones 1. Posterior Pituitary Hormones Secretes direct acting hormones which act directly on nonendocrine tissues.

E.g. i. Oxytocin induces uterine contractions & milk ejection.

ii. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys.

2. Anterior Pituitary Hormones Secretes inhibiting/stimulating hormones which inhibit/stimulate other glands to secrete/inhibit other hormones.

The inhibiting/stimulating hormones are i. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) ii. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) iii. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) iv. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

v. Prolactin vi. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) vii. Growth Hormone (GH)

Each acts on its target endocrine tissue to stimulate release of hormone(s) with direct metabolic or developmental effects.

Nonpituitary Hormones 1. Thyroid Hormones Thyroid gland 2. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) & Calcitonin Parathyroid gland 3. Insulin & Glucagon Pancreas (pancreatic islets) 4. Adrenal Hormones Adrenal cortex & adrenal medulla 5. Gonadol Sex Hormones Testes & ovary 6. Melatonin Pineal gland 7. Thymopoietin Thymus gland

Vertebrate endocrine glands and their hormones (Refer to pg..Figure..Table ..)

Nonpituitary Hormones 1. Thyroid Hormones The thyroid gland produces iodine-containing hormones (T3 & T4) that stimulate metabolism & influence development & maturation.

2. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) & Calcitonin Secreted by the thyroid, stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones & excretion by kidneys blood Ca2+ levels
PTH secreted by the parathyroid glands has the opposite effects on bones & kidney blood Ca2+ levels

3. Insulin & Glucagon Secreted by the pancreas (pancreatic islets).

Insulin (from cells) reduces blood glucose levels promotes the cellular uptake of glucose, glycogen formation in the liver, protein synthesis & fat storage. Glucagon (from cells) increases blood glucose levels - promotes glycogen breakdown in the liver, fat breakdown & conversion of protein to glucose.

4. Adrenal Hormones Neurosecretory cells in the adrenal medulla release epinephrine & norepinephrine in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system. The adrenal cortex releases i. cortisol influence glucose metabolisme & the immune system. ii. aldosterone affect salt & water balance. iii. sex hormones small amount

5. Gonadol Sex Hormones Produce most of the bodys sex hormone. i. estrogen stimulate the development & maintenance of the reproductive system. ii. testosterone stimulate the development & maintenance of the reproductive system.

6. Melatonin Secreted by the pineal gland. Affects skin pigmentation.

The Mechanism Controlling The Release of Hormones by Glands Presence of a specific metabolite in the blood. E.g. Excess glucose in the blood release of insulin from pancreas lower the blood glucose level.

Presence of another hormone in the blood. E.g. Many of the hormones released from the anterior pituitary gland are stimulating hormones release of other hormones from other glands in the body.

Stimulation by neurons from the autonomic nervous system. E.g. Adrenaline & noradrenaline are released from the cells of the adrenal medulla by the arrival of nerves impulses in situations of anxiety, stress & danger.

Hormone Receptors - proteins with specific binding sites - located either in the cytoplasm, nucleoplasm or more commonly in the cell surface membrane of the target cell. Target cell - cells that can recognize & respond to specific chemical signals. - may be located in another endocrine gland or in an entirely different type of organ such as bone or kidney.

Two Main Categories of Hormones 1. Steroid Hormone Characteristics of Steroid hormone: i. Produced by endocrine gland originated from the mesoderm. ii. Small size molecules, lipid & fat soluble & able to pass through cell membrane. E.g. testosterone, estrogen & aldosterone. iii. Involved in long term mechanism of body physiology.

Mechanism of Steroid Hormone Action Diffuse through the phospholipid layer of the plasma membrane of target cells.

Enters the cytoplasm & binds to a specific receptor protein forming activated hormonereceptor protein complex (HRPC). HRPC passes through the nuclear pore & enters nucleus. Binds to specific site on DNA activation of specific gene(s) which transcribes mRNA

The mRNA moves into cytoplasm & ribosomal subunits get attached to it. Translation occurs polypeptides chains are synthesized. Polypeptides chains then fold to form specific proteins or enzymes required for the physiological response to steroid hormone. E.g. Estrogen - stimulates the repair and thickening of the endometrium

2. Non-Steroid Hormone (Peptide/Amino Hormones) Produced by endocrine gland originated from the ectoderm.

Involved in short term mechanism of body physiology. Large size molecules & not able to pass through cell membrane. E.g. Insulin, antidiuresis & tyrotrophic hormone.

Mechanism of Non-Steroid Hormone Action* 2 messaging system extracell - the specific hormone. intracell - cAMP from phosphorylation process act upon the information from the hormone.

Hormone molecule reaches the target cell. Binds to a specific receptor protein on the outer surface of the plasma membrane conformational change in the receptor increase the affinity to bind with G (guanine nucleotide) protein (binding protein).

G protein is activated stimulate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase convert ATP into cAMP. cAMP as second messenger initiates a complex enzyme reaction chain (enzyme cascade reactionECR) which triggers responses of target cell. E.g. permeability change of cell membrane, increased production of glucose, etc.

*ECR process where the action of 1 enzyme activates another enzymatic reaction which results in many product molecules. It brings about a rapid and amplified response to the hormone.

E.g. Adrenaline activates the enzyme kinase. Through the enzyme cascade effect, glycogen phopsphorylase is activated & convert glycogen to glucose. ii. Vasopressin H activates enzymes that change the permeability of the cell membrane for reabsorption of water in kidney tubule cells.

G protein is activated stimulate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase convert ATP into cAMP.
cAMP as second messenger which initiates a complex enzyme reaction chain (cascade effect). activates protein kinase enzyme activates phosphorylase kinase enzyme activates glycogen phosphorylase enzyme catalyses the breakdown of glycogen glucose phosphate oxidised to release E

Steroid Hormone Action

Non-Steroid Hormone Action

That is all for this topic TAKE CARE & GOOD LUCK

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How impulse is transmitted along the axon and across the synapse. 2. Explain how the skeletal muscles contract.

3. Distinguish between rod and cone cells.


4. Discuss the structure of the rod cell.

5. Cochlea involved in the hearing process. Explain the hearing physiology. 6. There are two types of hormone. Discuss the characteristics of the hormones and the mechanisme of the hormone action.

Photoreception in A Rod Cell* Rods sensitive to low light intensity. Light detection depends on pigment rhodopsin. Rhodopsin consists of a protein, opsin joined with retinal (retinene). When rhodopsin absorbs light the retinal to change its shape & no longer attach to the opsin bleaching.

The chemical breakdown of the rhodopsin changes the permeability of the rod plasma membrane to Na+. The rod membrane become less permeable to Na+ - less can diffuse in. Na+ pumps continue to pump Na+ out causes the inside of the rod becomes > -ve. The alteration in the potential difference generator potential involves a hyperpolarization. If the generator potential reach a threshold level, it causes an action potential.

nerve impulse optic nerve optic center in the brain.

Types of Endocrine Glands & Hormones Produced 1. Pituitary Glands 2 lobes i. anterior 6 hormones Gonadotrophin hormone FSH, LH & prolactin Adrenotrophic hormone control adrenal glands Tyrotrophic hormone control secretion of thyroxin hormone

Somatotrophic hormone control growth. Diabetogenic hormone control insulin action. Melanocyte stimulating hormone control secretion of skin pigment.

ii. posterior 3 hormones Vasopresin hormone muscle contraction. Oxytocine hormone uterus muscle contraction. Antidiuresis hormone (ADH) changes in kidney collecting ducts permeability.

2. Metabolic Hormones Secreting Glands Important in controlling metabolic enzyme activity.

Secreted by:Tyroid gland tyroxine hormone. Parathyroid gland parathyroid hormone (control composition of Ca+ & PO4- ions in blood).

Adrenal i. Cortex adrenal 3 hormone (cortisol, aldosteron & androgen). ii. Medulla adrenal adrenalin hormone.
Pancreas (Langerhans tissue cells) i. cells insulin hormone (glucose glycogen). ii. cells glucagons hormone (glycogen glucose).

3. Gonad Glands Gonad = testes testosterone promote development of testes & 2 sexual character.

Gonad = ovary E2 - promote development of ovaries & 2 sexual character. - control menstrual cycle & pregnancy. Pg - control menstrual cycle & pregnancy.

4. Digestive Glands Produce hormones that controls secretion of digestive enzymes. E.g. i. pyloric part of the stomach gastrin hormone secretion HCl. ii. intestine secretin hormone secretion of pancreatic juice. 5. Thymus Glands Production of stimulating hormones & lymphocyte cells.

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