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GEOPHYSICS

GEOPHYSICS
FOR
FOR
GEOLOGIST
GEOLOGIST
AND
AND
ENGINEER
ENGINEER
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DETERMINA TION OF BA SIN
TY PE A ND STRUCTURE
DEV ELOPMENT OF TIME -
STRA TIGRA PHIC FRA MEWORK
DETECTION OF
UNCONFORMITIES
ENV IRONMENTA L - FA CIES
A NA LY SIS
RECONSTRUCTION OF
PA LEOGEOGRA PHY
PREDICTION OF
STRA TIGRA PHIC TRA P
EXPLORATION TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
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PRIHADI SA / 2002
GRAVITY
GRAVITY
MAIN FIELD EQUIPMENTS
MAIN FIELD EQUIPMENTS
Gravimeter : 1 unit La Coste and Romberg.
Positioning : 2 set GPS-Receivers LEICA
Elevation : 3 set Paulin Altimeter
Communication : 2 unit SSB radios ( 1 unit at
field, 1 unit at head office),
4 unit Handy talky,2vehicles
Data Processing: Laptop PC, printer, softwares,
diskettes, calculator
Crew : Geophysicist,Geodetic, 2 operator

6 lokal labor
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DATA ACQUISITION PLAN
DATA ACQUISITION PLAN
1. Calibration
Calibration of the gravimeter is carried out several
times : before and after a trip and every two weeks.
2. Base Station
The gravity base station in every location is
established by tying the base station to the nearest
standard base station to the location.
3. Data Acquisition Methods
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CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN
D a y 1 D a y 2
CONTOH METODA PENGUKURAN
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Hidarrtan
F i e l d D a t a S t a t i o n
M o d e m
5 6 . 6 k b p s
T e l e p h o n e N e t
F i e l d D a t a
i n A S C I I F o r m a t
T r a n s c e i v e r P r o t o c o l
b y Z m o d e m o r K e r m i t
S o f t w a r e
T r a n s c e i v e r P r o t o c o l
b y Z m o d e m o r K e r m i t
S o f t w a r e
F i e l d D a t a
i n S p r e a d S h e e t
F o r m a t S o f t w a r e
f i l t e r
D a t a M e d i a s t o r a g e
H a r d i s k 4 0 G b .
D a t a P r o c e s s i n g ,
I m p l e m e n t a t i o n ,
a n d D e s k t o p P u b l i s h i n g
O f f i c e D a t a S t a t i o n
O f f i c e D a t a S t a t i o n
F i e l d D a t a S t a t i o n
M o d e m
5 6 . 6 k b p s
M o d e m
5 6 . 6 k b p s
M o d e m
5 6 . 6 k b p s
P C P I V - 1 G h
P C P I V - 1 G h
DESIGN OF REMOTE DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM DESIGN OF REMOTE DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
DATA PROCESSING
DATA PROCESSING
The data obtained from the sites are sent
directly to the base camp and processed.
1
1
. DATA REDUCTION
. DATA REDUCTION
2
2
. GRAVITY PROFILES
. GRAVITY PROFILES
3.
3.
GRAVITY MAP
GRAVITY MAP
4.
4.
MODELING
MODELING
GRAVITY PROFILES
* Station Coordinate
* Station Elevation
* Gravity Value
DATA ACQUISITION
* Gravity Measurement
* GPS Positioning
DRIFT and TIDAL
CORRECTION
* FREE AIR CORRECTION
* BOUGUER CORRECTION
TERRAIN CORRECTION
* Inner (Field Processing)
* Outer (Head Office Processing)
* Bouguer Anomaly
* Complete Bouguer Anomaly
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GRAVITY GRAVITY
DATA DATA
PROCESSING PROCESSING
FLOW FLOW
CHART CHART
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1
1
. DATA REDUCTION
. DATA REDUCTION
The gravity data reduction consists of two types
of correction which are internal and external
correction.
The internal corrections are drift and tidal
corrections.
The external corrections are ellipsoid gravity
value, free air, bouguer, and terrain corrections.
DRIFT CORRECTION
DRIFT CORRECTION is applied to eliminate the
effect of spring fatigue of the La Coste instrument.
This correction is derived by double check the
starting base station at appropriate time interval.
TIDAL CORRECTION
TIDAL CORRECTION is applied to eliminate
gravity of the sun and moon which are time
function due to relative motion among earth,
moon and sun. The tidal correction had been
calculated in advance using computer by applying
the Longmans formula.
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ELLIPSOID EARTH GRAVITY
ELLIPSOID EARTH GRAVITY reference has to be
applied to produce an earth gravity value at the
mean sea level as a function of location latitude.
This reference implies an homogenous mass
distribution of the ellipsoid earth model.
The ellipsoid model in the IUGG 1979 formula is :
g
g

= 978.03185 (1 + 0.005278895 sin
= 978.03185 (1 + 0.005278895 sin
2 2

+
+
0.000023462 sin
0.000023462 sin
4 4

) , mgal
) , mgal
where
g

= theoretical gravity as function of

= latitude of the observation point.


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FREE-AIR CORRECTION
FREE-AIR CORRECTION (FAC) is applied to
estimate the earth gravity at certain altitude of an
observation above mean sea level.
The free air correction formula is calculated for
average earth radius at elevation h in meters.
FAC = - 0.3086 h, mgal
FAC = - 0.3086 h, mgal
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BOUGUER CORRECTION BOUGUER CORRECTION (BC BC) is applied to estimate the
earth gravity at elevation h above sea level with earth mass
of density (gr./cm3) fill up the space of thickness h.
This theoretical Bouguer correction can be written as:
BC BC = = 2h 2h

Gh = Gh = 0.04187 0.04187

h h, mgal
where :
G = 6.67 x 10
-9
Cgs unit
= the chosen density in gr./cm3
H = altitude of observation point in meters.
BOUGUER ANOMALY BOUGUER ANOMALY (BA BA) is the difference between the
observation gravity value (g
obs
) and the expected earth
normal gravity at an observation point.
BA BA = g
obs
- (g

- FAC + BC)
where the magnitude in the bracket is the expected earth normal
gravity.
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h
A
B
M
BOUGUER EFFECT
BOUGUER EFFECT
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PRIHADI SA / 2002
Pengukuran gaya berat sering dilakukan pada
daerah dengan topografi yang cukup bervariasi.
Koreksi terrain harus dihitung untuk
menghilangkan efek relief permukaan bumi
terhadap nilai anomali Bouguer yang dihitung.
Koreksi ini dihitung sebagai efek gaya berat yang
ditimbulkan oleh suatu badan massa tiga
dimensional yaitu adanya bukit dan lembah di
sekitar stasion pengukuran gaya berat.
TERRAIN CORRECTION
TERRAIN CORRECTION
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INNER ZONE CORRECTION
INNER ZONE CORRECTION
To apply this correction, a simple topographic
survey has to be performed at every gravity
station along a radius of t 35 and t 68 meters
which may be done before or after gravity reading.
Such survey should include the nature of local
morphology and the distance to the gravity station
which affects the observation.
The correction was directly calculated at the field
by using a certain gravity terrain inner correction
chart.
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OUTER ZONE CORRECTION
OUTER ZONE CORRECTION
This correction was done by using the Hammer
Chart, usually based on a topographic map of 1 :
250.000 scale.
Applying the terrain correction, the Bouguer
Anomaly (BA) can be refined to be a Complete
Bouguer Anomaly (CBA) following this formula :
CBA = g
CBA = g
obs obs
- (g
- (g

- FAC + BC - TC)
- FAC + BC - TC)
or
CBA = BA + TC
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Metoda konvensional untuk menghitung koreksi
terrain adalah dengan menggunakan Hammer
Chart dan peta topografi berskala tertentu.
Sekarang ini perhitungan koreksi terrain
dilakukan dengan bantuan komputer, salah
satunya adalah Metoda Integrasi Numerik.
METODA PERHITUNGAN KOREKSI TERRAIN
METODA PERHITUNGAN KOREKSI TERRAIN
Projection
System Similar to
the Map
Y
N
Gravity
Observation
Station
Position X, Y, Z
Transformation
of the Coordinate
Topographic
Map
Digitizing,
Gridding and
Merging
Terrain Correction
TERRAIN CORRECTION CALCULATION FLOW CHART TERRAIN CORRECTION CALCULATION FLOW CHART
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6
5

m
N W
R I V E R
H I L L R O C K
A
B
C
D
B
Sketch measurement topographic for Terrain Correction
Dua persoalan terlebih dahulu harus dipecahkan untuk dapat
melakukan komputasi koreksi terrain.
Pertama adalah bagaimana menghitung efek gaya berat
yang ditimbulkan oleh suatu badan massa tiga dimensi
dengan bentuk yang tak beraturan.
Efek gaya berat yang disebabkan oleh massa bervolume V
terhadap suatu titik dengan koordinat (X
o
,Y
o
,Z
o
) dapat
dihitung dengan persamaan :
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( )
g X Y Z ZR dx dy dz
v
0 0 0
3 2
, ,
/


( ) ( ) ( )
R X X Y Y Z Z
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
+ +
dengan : : konstanta gravitasi
: densitas
(1)
Kesulitan utama dalam memecahkan persamaan
integral di atas disebabkan karena batas-batas
integralnya, yang berupa permukaan bumi,
bentuknya tidak beraturan.
Pada metoda konvensional, persamaan
dipecahkan secara analitik dengan pendekatan
yang menggunakan bentuk-bentuk geometri
sederhana seperti silinder, kerucut, dan
sebagainya.
Dengan komputer, kita dapat menghitung
persamaan integral secara numerik yang batas
integralnya dapat mendekati bentuk permukaan
bumi secara lebih teliti.
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INTEGRASI NUMERIK
INTEGRASI NUMERIK
Apabila persamaan (1) ditulis dalam koordinat silinder maka
bentuknya adalah sebagai berikut :
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g r rZR
o o
o
h
r
r
( , )
/



3 2
1
2
1
2
R r z
h Z r Z
o
2 2 2
+
( , )
dengan Z
o
: elevasi stasiun
(2)
Bentuk ini lebih sesuai digunakan, karena
koreksi terrain biasanya dihitung untuk daerah
yang berbentuk lingkaran dalam radius
beberapa kilometer dari titik stasiun.
Lebih lanjut persamaan (2) dapat
disederhanakan menjadi persamaan (3) :
( ) ( )
g r r r
r
r h
drd
o o
r
r
,

'


2 1
2 2
1
2
1
2
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Suku kedua dapat dihitung secara numerik apabila nilai h
dapat diketahui pada titik-titik sampel integrasi.
Teknik integrasi yang digunakan adalah metoda Quadratur
Gauss dengan bentuk umum :
( ) G d d WW G
i j i j
j
n
i
m
, ,

_
,

1 1
1
1
1
1
W
i
, W
j
: koefisien bobot

i
,
j
: titik sampel integrasi
Dalam hal ini G(
i
,
j
) merupakan fungsi dari beda elevasi h
yang harus dihitung untuk sembarang titik dengan teknik
interpolasi.
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Untuk mendapatkan nilai elevasi di setiap titik pada
daerah integrasi, dilakukan interpolasi.
Teknik ini hanya memerlukan nilai elevasi pada titik -
titik tertentu, kemudian dihitung fungsi hampiran
sehingga elevasi dapat dihitung :
h = f( x,y ).
Teknik interpolasi berupa pencocokan permukaan
(surface fitting) yang tingkat ketelitiannya bervariasi
untuk tiap metodanya.
Seperangkat data elevasi dan persamaan
pencocokan permukaannya merupakan satu model
topografi.
MODEL TOPOGRAFI
MODEL TOPOGRAFI
Model topografi yang digunakan dibangun berdasarkan data
elevasi pada titik-titik kasa (grid).
Metoda pencocokan permukaan yang digunakan adalah
persamaan multi-quadric dengan persamaan :
Z X Y C X X Y Y
j j j
j
n
( , )
/

_
,
+

_
,

1
]
1

2 2
1 2
1
Persamaan ini menyatakan bahwa elevasi suatu titik di dalam
daerah data adalah kombinasi linier dari fungsi-fungsi
permukaan kerucut, yang titik puncaknya merupakan elevasi
titik-titik yang diketahui.
Fungsi Z(x,y) adalah permukaan yang smooth dan melalui
setiap titik data.
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Koefisien kerataan (flatness coefficient) C
j

didapat dari pemecahan persamaan linier
berikut :
[A] C = Z
dimana :

i j j i j i
x x y y

_
,
+

_
,

1
]
1
2 2
1 2 /
i = 1,2,3, ... n
j = 1,2,3, ... n
Z
i
: elevasi yang diketahui
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A
B
C D
E
F
G
H
Y-axis
X-axis
P (0,0,0)
Z-axis
Z Bottom
Z Top
Contour at depth Z
Body M

PRIHADI SA / 2002
Penentuan gravity pada satu titik dari suatu bentuk tiga dimensi yang tak beraturan
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Hidartan
HIdartan
2
2
. GRAVITY PROFILES
. GRAVITY PROFILES
Gravity profile will be produced for each line using
its reduced data to present the trend of gravity
values along the line.
3
3
. GRAVITY MAP
. GRAVITY MAP
Consists of CBA/BA anomaly map, regional
gravity map, residual gravity map.
Density range Approximate average
No. Material Type ( Mg / m
3
) density ( Mg / m
3
)
Unconsolidated Sediment
1. Alluvium 1.96 - 2.00 1.98
2. Clay 1.63 - 2.60 2.21
3. Gravel 1.70 - 2.40 2.00
4. Loess 1.40 - 1.93 1.64
5. Silt 1.80 - 2.20 1.93
6. Soil 1.20 - 2.40 1.92
SedimentaryRocks
7. Sand 1.70 - 2.30 2.00
8. Sandstone 1.61 - 2.76 2.35
9. Shale 1.77 - 3.20 2.40
10. Limestone 1.93 - 2.90 2.55
11. Dolomite 2.28 - 2.90 2.70
12. Chalk 1.53 - 2.60 2.01
13. Halite 2.10 - 2.60 2.22
14. Glacier Ice 0.88 - 0.92 0.90
Igneous Rocks
15. Rhyolite 2.35 - 2.70 2.52
16. Granite 2.50 - 2.81 2.64
17. Andesite 2.40 - 2.80 2.61
18. Syenite 2.60 - 2.95 2.77
19. Basalt 2.70 - 3.30 2.99
20. Gabbro 2.70 - 3.50 3.03
Metamorphic Rocks
21. Schist 2.39 - 2.90 2.64
22. Gneiss 2.59 - 3.00 2.80
23. Phylite 2.68 - 2.80 2.74
24. Slate 2.70 - 2.90 2.79
25. Granulite 2.52 - 2.73 2.65
26. Amphibolite 2.90 - 3.04 2.96
27. Eclogite 3.20 - 3.54 3.37
Densityof Common Geologic Material ( Telford et al. 1990 )
( from John M. Reynolds, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics, 1997 )
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Density Range Approximate average density
Material Type ( Mg/m
3 )
( Mg / m
3
)
Metallic minerals
Oxides, Carbonates
A. Manganite 4.2 - 4.4 4.32
B. Chromite 4.2 - 4.6 4.36
C. Magnetite 4.9 - 5.2 5.12
D. Haematite 4.9 - 5.3 5.18
E. Cuprite 5.7 - 6.15 5.92
F. Cassiterite 6.8 - 7.1 6.92
G. Woframite 7.1 - 7.5 7.32
H. Uraninite 8.0 - 9.97 9.17
Copper n.d 8.7
Silver n.d 10.5
Gold 15.6 - 19.4 17.0
Sulphides
A. Malachite 3.9 - 4.03 4.0
B. Stannite 4.3 - 4.52 4.4
C. Pyrrhotite 4.5 - 4.8 4.65
D. Molybdenite 4.4 - 4.8 4.7
E. Pyrite 4.9 - 5.2 5.0
F. Cobaltite 5.8 - 6.3 6.1
G. Galena 7.4 - 7.6 7.5
H. Cinnabar 8.0 - 8.2 8.1
Non-metallic minerals
Gypsum 2.2 - 2.6 2.35
Bauxite 2.3 - 2.55 2.45
Kaolinite 2.2 - 2.63 2.53
Baryte 4.3 - 4.7 4.47
Miscellaneous materials
Snow 0.05 - 0.88 n.d
Petroleum 0.6 - 0.9 n.d
Lignite 1.1 - 1.25 1.19
Anthracite 1.34 - 1.8 1.50
Densities of Minerals and Miscellaneous Materials ( Telford et al, 1990 )
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
12.
13.
10.
11.
Hidartan
DATA REDUCTION TABLE DATA REDUCTION TABLE
D ate T im e S tationR eadingG- obs LatitudeLongitude E levation G- nor m al C om b. C or r T er r ain C or r .B A C B A
( m gal) ( m gal) ( degr ee) ( degr ee) ( m ) ( m gal) ( m gal) Inner O uter( m gal)( m gal)
Hidartan
GRAVITY DATA SHEET GRAVITY DATA SHEET
Hidartan
COMBINE GRAVITY DATA SHEET COMBINE GRAVITY DATA SHEET
Hidartan
Hidartan
DENSITY DENSITY
DETERMINATION DETERMINATION
Hidartan
Hidartan
6 9 6 6 9 8 7 0 0 7 0 2 7 0 4 7 0 6 7 0 8 7 1 0 7 1 2
1 3 2
1 3 4
1 3 6
1 3 8
1 4 0
1 4 2
1 4 4
1 4 6
1 4 8
L H D - 4 , 8 , 9 , 1 0
L H D - 6
L H D - 7
L H D - 5 L H D - 1
L H D - 2
L H D - 3
GRAVITASI
ANOMALI
BOUGUER
rapat massa = 2.67 gr/cm
3
U
2 km
Hidartan
6 9 6 6 9 8 7 0 0 7 0 2 7 0 4 7 0 6 7 0 8 7 1 0 7 1 2
1 3 2
1 3 4
1 3 6
1 3 8
1 4 0
1 4 2
1 4 4
1 4 6
1 4 8
L H D - 1
L H D - 2
L H D - 3
L H D - 4 , 8 , 9 , 1 0
L H D - 5
L H D - 6
L H D - 7
L H D - 5
L H D - 7
GRAVITASI
ANOMALI
REGIONAL
POLINOM FIT
ORDE - 2
U
2 km
Hidartan
6 9 6 6 9 8 7 0 0 7 0 2 7 0 4 7 0 6 7 0 8 7 1 0 7 1 2
1 3 2
1 3 4
1 3 6
1 3 8
1 4 0
1 4 2
1 4 4
1 4 6
1 4 8
L H D - 1 L H D - 5
L H D - 7
L H D - 4 , 8 , 9 , 1 0
L H D - 6
L H D - 3
L H D - 2
GRAVITASI
ANOMALI SISA
U
2 km
Hidartan
1 3 2 1 3 6 1 4 0 1 4 4 1 4 8
- 5 . 0
0 . 0
5 . 0
1 0 . 0
A
N
O
M
A
L
I

S
I
S
A

(
M
G
A
L
)
- 3 . 0
- 2 . 0
- 1 . 0
0 . 0
1 . 0
E
L
E
V
A
S
I

(
K
M
)
L H D - 4 L H D - 5
L H D - 2 L H D - 3
S E L A T A N U T A R A
a n d e s i t b a s a l t i k t e r u b a h ( 2 . 5 g r / c c )
t u f f a , i g n i m b r i t e ( 2 . 0 g r / c c )
a n d e s i t ( 2 . 6 g r / c c )
s e d i m e n ( 2 . 2 g r / c c )
a n d e s i t ( 2 . 6 7 g r / c c )
i n t r u s i d i o r i t ( 2 . 9 g r / c c )
d a t a
p e r h i t u n g a n
GRAVITASI
PROFIL
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
MODEL
2-DIMENSI
Hidartan
6 9 6 7 0 0 7 0 4 7 0 8 7 1 2
- 5 . 0
0 . 0
5 . 0
1 0 . 0
A
N
O
M
A
L
I

S
I
S
A

(
M
G
A
L
)
- 3 . 0
- 2 . 0
- 1 . 0
0 . 0
1 . 0
E
L
E
V
A
S
I

(
K
M
)
B A R A T T I M U R
L H D - 1
L H D - 5
L H D - 7
d a t a
p e r h i t u n g a n
a n d e s i t b a s a l t i k t e r u b a h ( 2 . 5 g r / c c )
t u f f a , i g n i m b r i t e ( 2 . 0 g r / c c )
a n d e s i t ( 2 . 6 g r / c c )
a n d e s i t ( 2 . 6 7 g r / c c )
i n t r u s i d i o r i t ( 2 . 9 g r / c c )
GRAVITASI
PROFIL
ANOMALI
SISA
DAN
MODEL
2-DIMENSI
PRIHADI SA / 2002

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