WELDABILITY OF STEELS

PRESENTED BY :Dr. S.N. SOMAN METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING DEPT. FACULTY OF TECH. & ENGG., KALABHAVAN, BARODA.

LAMELLAR TEARING
The causes of lamellar tearing in welded structures is the combination of 1. High localized stresses due to weld contraction.

2. Low ductility of the base metal in its through thickness direction due to the presence of elongated stringers of non metallic inclusions parallel to its rolling direction.
Inclusions are usually silicates and sulfides. Tearing is triggered by de-cohesion of such non metallic inclusions near the weld in or just outside the HAZ. THE CONTENT AND MORPHOLOGY OF INCLUSIONS. HYDROGEN

PREHEATING
ELECTRODE STRENGTH

All these affect the susceptibility of steels to lamellar tearing.

Eg. Welds made with E7010. This is cellulosic electrode. Therefore this electrode supply a high hydrogen potential.

Hence weld made with this is more susceptible to lamellar tearing than those made with GMAW process.
The effect of hydrogen is associated with embrittlement rather than with cold cracking. Preheating has been found to reduce the susceptibility to lamellar tearing especially when high hydrogen potentials were present. Electrodes of lower strength levels provide the weld metal the ability to accommodate for contraction strains and therefore improve the resistance to lamellar tearing.

Thus the main factors likely to cause lamellar tearing are :1. Low, short transverse ductility of the parent plate material.

2. High surface area of the planar shaped defects, in the form of flattened out inclusions or stringers. 3. A weld joint configuration which gives rise to high residual tensile stresses in the short transverse direction. 4. The use of thick plates.

On the basis of these factors, lamellar tearing can be avoided by using steels with good transverse properties.
Eg. 1. Ce-treated grades.

Ce-treated grades affects the sulfide iron properties such that inclusions remain spheroidal even after hot rolling.
Such Ce-treated steels are expensive. 2. Other method by designing to avoid high restraint joints.

Other feature of lamellar tearing is that it takes plae after a certain time delay.
Eg. From weeks to years.

Mechanism of lamellar tearing There are two stages to failure by lamellar tearing. 1. Crack initiation.

2. Crack propagation.
Susceptibility tests 1. The Lehigh cantilever lamellar tearing test. 2. The Cranefield lamellar tearing test. 3. The tensile lamellar tearing test. Remedies A practical way of avoiding lamellar tearing is to employ joint designs that allow contraction stresses to act more in the rolling direction of the susceptible material and less in the transverse ( through thickness ) direction.

Figure : Microstructure of a lamellar tearing susceptible steel.

Figure : Lamellar tearing near a C- Mn steel weld.

Figure : Lamellar tearing of a corner joint :- (a) improper design. (b) improved design.

REHEAT CRACKING Reheat cracking is a well recognized problem in low alloy ferritic steels. These steels contain Cr, Mo and sometimes V and W -To enhance corrosion resistance. -To enhance elevated temperature strength. This steel is also called as creep resistant ferritic steels. It is used for elevated temperature service for nuclear and fossil energy applications.

Creep resistant ferritic steels are reheated to about 550-6500C, after welding -to relieve stresses -to reduce susceptibility to hydrogen cracking or SCC.

However cracking occur in the HAZ during reheating.

Eg. 0.5 Cr, 0.5 Mo, 0.25 V - 0.5 Cr, 1 Mo, 1 V - 2.05 Cr, 1 Mo. These are all ferritic steels susceptible to reheat cracking. Effect of alloying elements on Crack Susceptibility ( CS ) is given by CS = % Cr + 3.3 X ( % Mo ) + 8.1 X ( % V ) 2

When CS>0 or = 0, the steel may be susceptible to reheat cracking.

Inter-granular cracking is evident. Cause The mechanism of reheat cracking is as follows: During welding, the HAZ near the fusion line is heated to temperatures very high in the austenite phase field. Here the preexisting carbides of Cr, Mo, V dissolve and the austenite grains grow. Subsequent rapid cooling does not allow enough time for carbides to reprecipitate. This results into super-saturation of these alloying elements in austenite as austenite transforms to martensite ( if hardenability is sufficient ). When coarse grained HAZ is reheated to elevated temperature for stress relieving, fine carbides precipitates at dislocations in the prior austenite grain interiors.

This strengthens the austenite grain interiors before the stresses are relieved.
1. Thus the grain interiors are strengthened more than the grain boundaries. 2. This strengthening occurs before stresses are relieved. Therefore, because of ( 1 & 2 ) cracking can occur along grain boundaries. Susceptibility tests The reheat cracking susceptibility can be evaluated by Measuring the extent of crack growth in a compact tension test or A Charpy V notch specimen which is loaded and kept at the reheat temperature ( say around 6000C ) Use the Vinckier test.

Reheat cracking in a CrMoV steel : (a) macrostructure (magnificationX35). (b) microstructure (magnificationX1000).

Figure : Vinckier test for reheat cracking.

Figure : Temperature v/s Time to fracture in ferritic steels.

Remedies Multiple pass welding has been reported to reduce reheat cracking in creep resistant ferritic steels. Reducing the level of residual stresses by minimising the restraint during welding can reduce reheat cracking in creep resistant ferritic steels. Stress concentrations such as fillet toe, prior liquation cracks, accentuate the problem. If possible, rapid heating through the carbide precipitation range can also be considered.

Liquation Cracking

It is also known as Partially Melted Zone (PMZ) cracking or hot cracking.

Liquation cracking is cracking induced by grain boundary liquation in PMZ during welding. PMZ can suffer from -Liquation cracking, Loss of ductility, Hydrogen cracking

In aluminium alloys liquation cracking and ductility loss are particularly severe.
In this type of cracking there is Grain boundary segregation.

Melting of grain boundaries near the fusion line. This aggravates the grain boundary segregation.
High residual stresses as the weld cools. All these tend to rupture these impurity weakened boundaries. The origin of segregation in liquation cracking is different from that of solidification cracking.

Figure : Zone of unmixed melted base metal along the fusion boundary.

Figure : Formation of PMZ cracking in a full penetration aluminum weld;

(a) schematic; (b) PMZ cracking in 6061 aluminum.

Figure : Weld metal pulling and tearing PMZ: (a) Schematic sketch. (b) 7075 aluminum welded with filler 1100.

Figure : PMZ cracking in 2219 aluminium welded with filler metal 1100.

At temperatures between the solidus and liquidus boundaries melting of grain boundaries at the fusion line occurs.
Melting nucleates at high energy crystal defects. Eg. Surfaces, boundaries. There is a gradual increase in melted boundary width upto the melt zone.

Impurities from melted back inclusions near the fusion line or

impurities of low solubility in the matrix diffuse to the melted boundaries. [ ( MnFe )S ]. On being cooled, these segregants tend to form films of low melting point grain boundary compounds or low melting point eutectics.

Liquation cracking is dependent on the amount and type of impurities in the base metal. the volume fraction and density of inclusions the degree of restraint. This in turn depend on the strength and thickness of the plates being welded.

the dwell time high temperature.

Thus the high energy welding processes increase the susceptibility to this problem. Remedies for the PMZ cracking can be grouped into four catagories

1. Filler metal.
2. Heat source. 3. Degree of restraint. 4. Base metal. 1. Filler metal liquation cracking can be reduced by selecting the proper filler metal. If, TWS > TBS - liquation cracking occour. TWS = Solidus temperature of weld metal. TBS = Solidus temperature of base metal.

If weld metal composition is such that TWS > TBS , the PMZ solidify before the weld metal and thus resist tensile strains arising from weld metal solidification.
2. Heat source The size of the PMZ and hence the extent of PMZ liquation can be reduced by reducing the heat input. The heat input can be kept low by using multipass welding or low heat input welding processes such as EBW , GTAW. Low Q/V, narrower PMZ, High Q/V, wider PMZ. Q/V : heat input / welding speed or

heat input per unit length of weld.

Figure : Effect of heat input on width of PMZ.

Liquation cracking can also be reduced by using transverse arc oscillation. The extent of grain boundary melting is significantly smaller with arc oscillation. With the same welding speed, the resultant speed of the heat source is increased by transverse arc oscillation. This results in a smaller weld pool and narrower PMZ. 3. Degree of restraint Liquation cracking can be reduced by decreasing the degree of restraint and hence the level of tensile stresses. 4. Base metal liquation cracking can be reduced by selecting the proper base metal for welding.

The base metal composition, grain structure, micro segregation, can affect the susceptibility to liquation cracking.
Impurities eg. P,S. They widen the freezing temperature range due to the lowering of the incipient melting temperature.

The coarser the grains are, the less ductile the PMZ becomes.
Further more, the coarser the grains are, the less the GB area is and hence the more concentrated the impurities or low melting point segregants are at the GB. Consequently a base metal with coarser grains s more susceptible to liquation cracking. -Grain orientation Liquation cracking is more severe in welds made transverse to the rolling direction than those made parallel to rolling direction. In the later case, the elongated grains produced by the action of rolling are parallel to the weld and therefore are more difficult for cracks to propagate into the base metal. -Microsegregation In the welding of as-cast materials, it is more susceptible to liquation cracking because of the presence of low melting point GB segregates. Upon heating during welding, excessive GB liquation occurs in the PMZ, making it highly susceptibile to liquation cracking. Cracking susceptibility tests Vare Straint testing. - Circular patch testing.

COLD CRACKING
Cold cracking or hydrogen induced cracking is the most serious and least understood of all weld cracking problems. Hydrogen is introduced into the weld metal during the welding process from -The atmosphere -The hydrocarbons on the plate being welded -Using a damp electrode flux. Prior to crack initiation there is a time delay or incubation time.

Crack propagation occurs in a slow, jerky mode.

There is further incubation between crack initiation and crack growth. The crack can be both transcrystalline and inter-crystalline. But mainly follows prior austenite grain boundaries.

Figure : Hydrogen Cracking in a fillet weld of 1040 steel (magnification 4.5X)

Figure : Hydrogen cracking in a fillet weld of 1040 steel (magnification 4.5X)

The initiation of cold cracking is associated with

Notches eg. Toe of the weld or Microstructural inhomogenities which exhibit sudden changes in hardness eg. Slag inclusions, martensite-ferrite interfaces, grain boundaries.

Cold cracking is accentuated in the presence of high restraint weld geometries and matrix hardening. Twinned martensite structure is most susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Hydrogen cracking occurs when the following four factors are present simultaneously 1. Hydrogen in the weld metal. 2. High stresses. 3. Susceptible microstructure. 4. Relatively low temperature ( -100 to +2000C ).

High stresses can be induced during cooling

-By solidification shrinkage.

-By thermal contraction under constraints. Martensite is susceptible to hydrogen cracking ( especially hard and brittle high C martensite ).

Since Ms ( i.e. martensite formation temperature ) is relatively low, hydrogen cracking tends to occur at relatively low temperature.
For this reason it is called Cold Cracking. It is also called delayed cracking due to incubation time required for crack development in some cases. Fig. depicts the diffusion of hydrogen from the weld metal to the HAZ during welding.

Figure : Diffusion of hydrogen from weld metal to HAZ during welding.

Figure : Diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in ferritic and austenitic materials as a function of temperature.

As the weld metal transforms from austenite into ferrite and pearlite, hydrogen is rejected by the austenite to the ferrite and pearlite because of the lower solubility of hydrogen in ferrite than in austenite.
The weld metal is usually lower in C content than the base metal because the filler metal usually has lower C content than the base metal.

Hence as such it is likely that the weld metal transforms from austenite to ferrite and pearlite before the HAZ transforms from austenite into martensite.
The build up of H in the weld metal ferrite causes it to diffuse into the adjacent HAZ austenite near the fusion boundary. The diffusion coefficient of H is much higher in ferritic materials than austenitic materials.

The high diffusion coefficient of H in ferrite favors this process. On the contrary the much lower diffusion coefficient of H in austenite discourages H diffusion from the HAZ to the base metal before the HAZ austenite transforms to martensite. This combination of H and M (martensite) in the HAZ promotes hydrogen cracking. The mechanism of hydrogen cracking is not clearly understood, though numerous theories have been proposed. Eg.

1. Troiano proposed that hydrogen promotes crack growth by reducing the cohesive lattice strength of the material.
2. Petch proposed that hydrogen promotes crack growth by reducing surface energy of the crack. 3. Beachem proposed that hydrogen assists microscopic deformation ahead of crack tip.

Susceptibility tests The implant test. The Lehigh restraint test. The RPI augmented strain cracking test. The controlled thermal severity test. The Lehigh slot weld-ability test. Remedies

A : control of welding parameters.

A1 : preheating , A2 : post weld heating, A3 : bead tempering. B : use of proper welding processes and materials. B1 : use of low H processes and consumables. B2 : use of lower strength filler metals. B3 : use of austenitic stainless steel filler metals.

A1 : The use of the proper preheat and inter-pass temperatures can help reduce hydrogen cracking.
There are two approaches to select the temperatures I. use empirically derived tables that list the steels and the recommended welding procedures, and the preheat and inter-pass temperatures. II. To relate the cracking tendency to the harden-ability of steels based on the carbon equivalence (CE) CE = %C + Mn%/6 + (Cr%+Mo%+V%)/5 + (Cr%+Ni%)/15

Higher the CE of steel, harder will be the HAZ with increased risk of cracking.
A2 : Post weld heating- post weld heat treatment can be used to stress relieve the weld before it cools down to room temperatures.

If stress relief heat treatment cannot be carried out immediately upon completion of welding, the weld-ment can be held at a proper temperature to allow austenite to transform into less susceptible microstructure than martensite. Post weld heating can also help hydrogen diffuse out of the work-piece. eg. C steel, PWHT is 590-6750C.

A3 : Bead tempering- Bead tempering is multiple pass welding. It is effective in reducing hydrogen cracking.
B1 : Use of low H processes and consumables. Eg. Low H welding processes are GTAW,GMAW. High H welding processes are SMAW,FCAW. Low H consumables are basic type electrodes. High H consumables are cellulosic electrodes in SMAW. Low H processes and consumables reduces amount of hydrogen present in the welding zone. Keep electrodes in sealed containers. Bake at 3000C to 4000C to dry them out. B2 : Use of lower strength filler metals. the use of filler metals of lower strength than the base metal can help reduce the stress levels in the HAZ and hence reduce the chance of hydrogen cracking.

B3 : Use of austenitic stainless steels filler metals.

Austenitic stainless steels and Ni based alloys are used for welding HTLA steels. The diffusion coefficient of hydrogen is much lower in austenite (which includes Ni-based alloys) than in ferrite. i.e. H is trapped in austenite weld metal and unable to reach the HAZ. to cause cracking. Further good ductility of austenite weld metal help prevent build up of high residual stresses in the HAZ, thus reducing the susceptibility of hydrogen cracking.

Figure : Intergranular corrosion in HAZ of a 304 SS containing 0.05% C.

Figure : Cr concentration profile across grain boundary.

Figure : Grain boundary microstructure in sensitized austenitic SS.