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Echinodermata
(sister group to chordates)
Urochordata
(tunicates)
Cephalochordata
(lancelets)
Ancestral deuterostome
Myxini
(hagfishes)
Notochord
Cephalaspidomorphi
Brain
(lampreys)
Chondrichthyes
Head
Actinopterygii
Chordates
(ray-finned fishes)
Actinistia
Craniates
(coelacanths)
Vertebral column
Dipnoi
Vertebrates
(lungfish
es)
Amphibia
Gnathostomes
(frogs
Jaws, mineralized skeleton
Lobed fins
Osteichthyans
Reptilia
Lungs or lung derivatives
Lobe-fins
(turtles, birds)
Legs
Mammalia
(mammals)
Tetrapods
Milk
Amniotes
Amniotic egg
Derived Characters of
Chordates
All chordates share a set of derived
characters
Although some species possess some of
these traits only during embryonic
Dorsal,
development hollow
nerve cord
Mouth
Anus
Pharyngeal
slits or clefts
Muscular,
32.1 post-anal tail
Notochord
The notochord
Is a longitudinal, flexible rod located
between the digestive tube and the nerve
cord
Provides skeletal support throughout most
of the length of a chordate
In most vertebrates, a more complex,
jointed skeleton develops
And the adult retains only remnants of the
embryonic notochord
32.1
Dorsal, Hollow Nerve
Cord
The nerve cord of a chordate embryo
Develops from a plate of ectoderm that
rolls into a tube dorsal to the notochord
Develops into the central nervous
system: the brain and the spinal cord
32.1
Pharyngeal Slits or Clefts
In most chordates, grooves in the
pharynx called pharyngeal clefts
Develop into slits that open to the outside
of the body
These pharyngeal slits
Function as suspension-feeding structures
in many invertebrate chordates
Are modified for gas exchange in aquatic
vertebrates
Develop into parts of the ear, head, and
neck in terrestrial vertebrates
32.1
Muscular, Post-Anal Tail
Chordates have a tail extending
posterior to the anus
Although in many species it is lost during
embryonic development
The chordate tail contains skeletal
elements and muscles
And it provides much of the propelling
force in many aquatic species
32.1
Craniates are chordates
that have a head
The origin of a head
Opened up a completely new way of
feeding for chordates: active predation
Craniates share some common
characteristics
A skull, brain, eyes, and other sensory
organs
Derived Characters of
Craniates
One feature unique to craniates
Is the neural crest, a collection of cells
that appears near the dorsal margins of
the closingDorsal
neuraledges tube
Neural in an Neural
embryo
of neural plate crest Ectoderm tube
Ectoderm
32.2
Hagfishes
The least derived craniate lineage
that still survives
Is class Myxini, the hagfishes
Slime glands
Vertebrates are craniates
that have a backbone
During the Cambrian period
A lineage of craniates evolved into
vertebrates
Vertebrates have
Vertebrae enclosing a spinal cord
An elaborate skull
32.3
Lampreys are jawless vertebrates
Inhabiting various marine and
freshwater habitats
32.3
Gnathostomes are
vertebrates that have jaws
Today, jawless
Gill slits
Cranium
vertebrates
Mouth
Are far outnumbered Skeletal rods
32.4
The largest and most diverse
subclass of Chondrichthyes
Includes the sharks and rays
32.4
Ray-Finned Fishes and
Lobe-Fins
The vast majority of vertebrates
belong to a clade of gnathostomes
called Osteichthyes
Nearly all living osteichthyans have a
bony endoskeleton
Aquatic osteichthyans
Are the vertebrates we informally call
fishes
Control their buoyancy with an air sac
32.4 known as a swim bladder
Fishes breathe by drawing water
over four or five pairs of gills
Located in chambers covered by a
protective bony flap called the
operculum
Dorsal fin Adipose fin Caudal
(characteristic of fin
Spinal cord Swim bladder
trout)
Brain
Nostril
32.4 Intestine
Ray-Finned Fishes
Class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned fishes
includes nearly all the familiar aquatic
osteichthyans
The fins, supported mainly by long, flexible
rays are modified for maneuvering, defense,
and other (a)functions
Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares), a fast-swimming,
schooling fish that is an important
commercial fish worldwide
Lobe-Fins
The lobe-fins, class Sarcopterygii
Have muscular and pectoral fins
Include coelacanths, lungfishes, and
tetrapods
Bones
supporting
gills
Tetrapod
limb
skeleton
Millions of years ago
Extraordinary 420 415 400 385 370 355 340 325 310 295 280 265
allowed Lungfishes
paleontologists Eusthenopteron
to reconstruct Panderichthys
the origin of Elginerpeton
tetrapods Metaxygnathus
Acanthostega
lchthyostega
Hynerpeton
Greerpeton
Amphibians
Amniotes
Amphibians
Class Amphibia
Is represented by about 4,800 species of
organisms
Most amphibians
Have moist skin that complements the
lungs in gas exchange
Amphibian means “two lives”
A reference to the metamorphosis of an
aquatic larva into a terrestrial adult
(b) The tadpole is
an aquatic
herbivore with
a fishlike tail
and
internal gills.
(a) The male grasps the female, stimulating her to (c) During metamorphosis, the
release eggs. The eggs are laid and fertilized in gills and tail are resorbed, and
water. They have a jelly coat but lack a shell and walking legs develop.
would desiccate in air.
Amniotes are tetrapods
that have a terrestrially
adapted egg
Amniotes are a group of tetrapods
Whose living members are the reptiles,
birds, and the mammals
Amniotes are named for the major
derived character of the clade, the
amniotic egg
Which contains specialized membranes
that protect the embryo
32.5
Pa
rar
ep
tile
s
Tu
rtle
s
Cr
oc
od
Archosaurs
ilia
ns
Pte
Reptiles
ros
Or au
nit rs
h
d i n is c
os hia
au
rs n
Sa
u
din risc
o h
Dinosaurs
Diapsids
ird th
s e r
Saurischians
Bir
ds
amniote
Ancestral
Ple
sio
s au
rs
Ich
thy
os
au
rs
Tu
ata
ra
Sq
Lepidosaurs
ua
ma
tes
Ma
mm
als
Synapsids
A Phylogeny of Amniotes
The extraembryonic membranes
Have various functions
Extraembryonic membranes
Allantois. The allantois is a disposal Chorion. The chorion and the membrane of the
sac for certain metabolic wastes pro- allantois exchange gases between the embryo
duced by the embryo. The membrane and the air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse
of the allantois also functions with freely across the shell.
the chorion as a respiratory organ.
Yolk sac. The yolk sac contains the
Amnion. The amnion protects yolk, a stockpile of nutrients. Blood
the embryo in a fluid-filled vessels in the yolk sac membrane transport
cavity that cushions against nutrients from the yolk into the embryo.
mechanical shock. Other nutrients are stored in the albumen (“egg white”).
Embryo
Amniotic cavity
with amniotic fluid
Yolk (nutrients)
Albumen
Shell
32.6
Amniotes also have other terrestrial
adaptations
Such as relatively impermeable skin
and the ability to use the rib cage to
ventilate the lungs
32.7
Reptiles
The reptile clade includes
The tuatara, lizards, snakes, turtles,
crocodilians, birds, and the extinct
dinosaurs
Reptiles
Have scales that create a waterproof
barrier
Lay shelled eggs on land
32.7
Most reptiles are ectothermic
Absorbing external heat as the main
source of body heat
Birds are endothermic
Capable of keeping the body warm
through metabolism
Derived Characters of
Birds
Many of the characters of birds are adaptations
that facilitate flight
For example, wings and feathers
Finger 1
Vane Shaft
Shaft Barb
Barbule
32.8 Hook
(c) Feather structure
The Origin of Birds
Birds probably descended from
theropods
A group of small, carnivorous dinosaurs
Mammals are amniotes
that have hair and
produce milk
Mammals, class Mammalia
Are represented by more than 5,000
species
Mammary glands, which produce milk
Are a distinctively mammalian
character
Hair is another mammalian
characteristic
Mammals generally have a larger
32.9brain
Monotremes
A small group of egg-laying mammals
consisting of echidnas and the
platypus
32.10
Marsupials
Marsupials
Include opossums, kangaroos, and
koalas
32.10
A marsupial is born very early in its
development
And completes its embryonic
development while nursing within a
maternal pouch called a marsupium
(a) A young brushtail possum. The young of
marsupials are born very early in their
development. They finish their growth
while nursing from a nipple (in their
mother’s pouch in most species).
Phylogenetic relationships of
mammals
This clade of eutherians evolved
in Africa when the continent
All members of this clade,
which underwent an adaptive
This is the largest eutherian
clade. It includes the rodents,
This diverse clade includes terrestrial
and marine mammals as well as bats,
was isolated from other radiation in South America, which make up the largest the only flying mammals. A growing
landmasses. It includes belong to the order Xenarthra. mammalian order by far, with body of evidence, including Eocene
Earth’s largest living land One species, the nine-banded about 1,770 species. Humans fossils of whales with feet,
animal (the African elephant), armadillo, is found in the belong to the order Primates. supports putting whales in
as well as species that weigh southern United States. the same order (Cetartiodactyla)
less than 10 g. as pigs, cows, and hippos.
Proboscidea Sirenia
Tubulidentata Rodentia Carnivora
Hyracoidea Lagomorpha Cetartiodactyla
Afrosoricida (golden Primates Perissodactyla
moles and tenrecs) Dermoptera Chiroptera
Macroscelidea (flying lemurs) Eulipotyphla
Scandentia Pholidota
Monotremata Marsupialia (elephant shrews) Xenarthra (tree shrews) (pangolins)
The
echidnas
fur of mother koalas
Echidna Koala
major
trunk; thick, many thin tubes
Elephants
loose skin; upper cemented together;
incisors elongated eats ants and termites
African elephant as tusks Aardvark
eutherian
Aquatic; finlike Hyracoidea Short legs; stumpy tail;
Sirenia
forelimbs and Hyraxes herbivorous; complex,
Manatees,
no hind limbs; multichambered
dugongs
herbivorous Rock hyrax stomach
Manatee
orders
Xenarthra Reduced teeth or
Sloths, no teeth; herbivorous Squirrels, growing incisors worn
anteaters, (sloths) or carnivorous beavers, rats, down by gnawing;
armadillos (anteaters, porcupines, herbivorous
armadillos) mice Red squirrel
Tamandua
Primates Opposable thumbs;
Lagomorpha Chisel-like incisors;
Lemurs, forward-facing eyes;
Rabbits, hind legs longer than
monkeys, well-developed
hares, picas forelegs and adapted
apes, cerebral cortex;
for running and
humans Golden lion omnivorous
jumping
Jackrabbit tamarin
panzees
Orangutans
0
Gibbons
Tarsiers
Humans
Gorillas
Chim-
10
Millions of years ago
20
30
40
50
60 Ancestral primate
Derived Characters of
Primates
Most primates
Have hands and feet adapted for grasping
Primates also have
A large brain and short jaws
Forward-looking eyes close together on
the face, providing depth perception
Well-developed parental care and
complex social behavior
A fully opposable thumb
32.11
New World and Old World monkeys
Underwent separate adaptive radiations
during their many millions of years of
separation
(a) New World monkeys, such as spider (b) Old World monkeys lack a prehensile tail, and their nostrils
monkeys (shown here), squirrel monkeys, and open downward. This group includes macaques (shown here),
capuchins, have a prehensile tail and nostrils mandrills, baboons, and rhesus monkeys.
that open to the sides.
The other group of anthropoids, the
hominoids
(a) Gibbons, such as this Muller's gibbon, are
Consists of primates informally called
found only in southeastern Asia. Their very
long arms and fingers are adaptations for
apes brachiation.
32.12
These species are known as hominids
32.12
1.0
Australopithecus
1.5 africanus
2.0
Millions of years ago
Kenyanthropus
platyops
2.5
Australopithecus
garhi Homo
3.0 erectus
Australopithecus
anamensis
3.5
Homo Homo
rudolfensis habilis
4.0
4.5
Ardipithecus Australopithecus
ramidus afarensis
5.0
5.5
6.5
Sahelanthropus
tchadensis
7.0
32.12
Early Hominids
Hominids originated
in Africa
Approximately 6–7
million years ago
Early hominids
Had a small brain,
but probably walked
upright, exhibiting
mosaic evolution
32.12
Australopiths
Australopiths are a paraphyletic
assemblage of hominids
That lived between 4 and 2 million years
ago
32.12
Some species
walked fully
erect
And had human-
like hands and
teeth
(a) Lucy, a 3.24-million-year-old skeleton,
represents the hominid species
Australopithecus afarensis.
32.12
Early Homo
The earliest fossils that
paleoanthropologists place in our
genus Homo
Are those of the species Homo habilis,
ranging in age from about 2.4 to 1.6
million years
Stone tools have been found with H.
habilis
Giving this species its name, which means
32.12 “handy man”
Homo ergaster
Was the first fully bipedal, large-brained
hominid
Existed between 1.9 and 1.6 million
years
32.12
Homo erectus
Originated in Africa approximately 1.8
million years ago
Was the first hominid to leave Africa
32.12
Neanderthals
Neanderthals, Homo neanderthalensis
Lived in Europe and the Near East from
200,000 to 30,000 years ago
Were large, thick-browed hominids
32.12
Homo sapiens
Appeared in Africa at least 160,000
years ago
The oldest fossils of Homo sapiens
outside Africa
Date back about 50,000 years ago
32.12
The rapid expansion of our species
May have been preceded by changes to
the brain that made symbolic thought
and other cognitive innovations possible
32.12