AE 2303 AERODYNAMICS-II

Dr.S.Elangovan

Introduction


Review of prerequisite elements

Perfect gas Thermodynamics laws Isentropic flow Conservation laws Analogous concept Derivation of speed of sound

Speed of sound

Mach number

Review of prerequisite elements



Perfect gas:
Equation of state

Entropy

P ! VRT
For calorically perfect gas

Hq ds ! T

du  Pdv dh  vdP ds ! ! T T

Entropy changes?

u ! u (T ) h ! u  RT dh ! c p dT du ! cv dT c p ! cv  R cp K ! cv

V T s2  s1 ! cv ln 2  R ln 1 V2 T1 P T s2  s1 ! c p ln 2  R ln 2 P1 T1

T2 s 2  s1 V 2 ! exp V T1 cv 1 T2 s 2  s1 P2 ! exp T1 c p P1

R cv

R cp

Review of prerequisite elements

Forms of the 1st law

Cont.

Hq  Hw ! He Tds ! de  pdY Tds ! dh  Ydp

The second law

Hq ds u T

Review of prerequisite elements

If ds=o

Cont.

For an isentropic flow

V T2 V 2 ! 2 ! V T1 V1 1 T2 P2 ! T1 P1
R cp

R cv

K 1

T2 P2 ! T1 P 1

K 1 K

V2 ! V 1

K 1

P2 ! P 1

K 1 K

P2 V 2 ! P V1 1

P ! constant K V

Review of prerequisite elements

Cont.

  m1 ! m2

Conservation of mass (steady flow):

V1V1 A1 ! V 2V2 A2

Rate of mass Rate of mass enters control = leaves control volume volume

VVA ! ( V  dV )(V  dV )( A  dA) VAdV  VAdV  VVdA ! 0 dV dV dA   !0 V V A

V V A

flow 1
dx

V  dV V  dV A  dA

If V is constant (incompressible):
dV dA ! V A

Review of prerequisite elements Conservation of momentum (steady flow): Net force on Rate momentum gas in control = leaves control volume volume

Cont.

Rate momentum enters control volume

  1 FQ  Fp ! mV 2  mV
p V V A
flow 1
dx

p  dp V  dV V  dV A  dA

Euler equation (frictionless flow):

V2 dp  ! constant 2 V

Review of prerequisite elements

Cont.

Conservation of energy for a CV (energy balance):

Basic principle: Change of energy in a CV is related to energy transfer by heat, work, and energy in the mass flow.

dECV Vi 2 Ve2      gz e ! Q  W  mi ui   gz i  me u e  dt 2 2

heat transfer

work transfer

energy transfer due to mass flow

Review of prerequisite elements

Cont.

Analyzing more about Rate of Work Transfer: work can be separated into 2 types: work associated with fluid pressure as mass entering or leaving the CV. other works such as expansion/compression, electrical, shaft, etc. Work due to fluid pressure: fluid pressure acting on the CV boundary creates force.

 Fp ! pA W p ! FpV   m ! VAV mv ! AV   W p ! mpv

   W ! WCV  W p    W p ! We  Wi

dECV Vi 2 Ve2  W  m p v  m p v  m u    me u e  e e e i i i i i   gz e !Q  gz i CV 2 2 dt Vi 2 Ve2 dECV     ! Q  WCV  mi u i  pi vi   gz i  me u e  pe ve   gz e dt 2 2 h ! u  pv Most important form dECV Vi 2 Ve2  W  m h   i i !Q  gz i  me he   gz e CV  of energy balance. dt 2 2

Review of prerequisite elements

Ve2 Vi2     mi hi   Q  W ! me he  2 2

Cont.

e2  Vi2 V dq  dw ! he  hi 
2

For calorically perfect gas (dcp=dcv=0):

T h V

flow 1
dx

T  dT
2

h  dh V  dV

h ! c pT
For adiabatic flow (no heat transfer) and no work:

c p dT  VdV ! 0

Review of prerequisite elements

Conservation laws

Cont.

Conservation of mass (compressible flow):

dV dV dA   m1 ! m2 p   !0 V V A
  1 FQ  Fp ! mV 2  mV p dP  VdV ! 0 V

Conservation of momentum (frictionless flow):

Conservation of energy (adiabatic):

 V dq  dw ! h  h 
e i

2 e

 Vi 2 p c p dT  VdV ! 0 2

Group Exercises 1
1. Given that standard atmospheric conditions for air at 150C are a pressure of 1.013 bar and a density of 1.225kg, calculate the gas constant for air. Ans: R=287.13J/kgK 2. The value of Cv for air is 717J/kgK. The value of R=287 J/kgK. Calculate the specific enthalpy of air at 200C. Derive a relation connecting Cp, Cv, R. Use this relation to calculate Cp for air using the information above. Ans: h=294.2kJ/kgK,Cp=1.004kJ/kgK 3. Air is stored in a cylinder at a pressure of 10 bar, and at a room temperature of 250C. How much volume will 1kg of air occupy inside the cylinder? The cylinder is rated for a maximum pressure of 15 bar. At what temperature would this pressure be reached? Ans: V=0.086m2, T=1740C.

Speed of sound
Sounds are the small pressure disturbances in the gas around us, analogous to the surface ripples produced when still water is disturbed

Sound wave
P  dP V  dV T  dT V ! dV P V T V !0

Sound wave

P  dP V  dV T  dT V ! a  dV

P V T V !a

Sound wave moving through stationary gas

Gas moving through stationary sound wave

Speed of sound
Derivation of speed of sound
a!

cont.

Combination of mass and momentum

dp dV

Conservation of mass
 m ! VaA ! V  dV a  dV A dV dV ! a V

P2 V 2 For ! P V1 1 isentropic flow P ! constant K V

Conservation of momentum
  PA  P  dP A ! ma  dV  ma dP ! VadV

Finally
dP KP ! dV V a! KP ! KRT V

Mach Number
M=V/a M<1 M=1 M>1 M>5 Subsonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic Distance traveled = at Distance traveled = speed x time = 4at

Zone of silence

Source of disturbance

If M=0

Region of influence

Mach Number cont.

Original location of source of disturbance

Source of disturbance

If M=0.5

Mach Number cont.

ut ut ut ut Original location of source of disturbance

Direction of motion

Source of disturbance

Mach wave:
If M=2

at 1 sin E ! ! ut M

Normal and Oblique Shock



A shock wave (also called shock front or simply "shock") is a type of propagating disturbance. Like an ordinary wave, it carries energy and can propagate through a medium (solid, liquid, gas or plasma) or in some cases in the absence of a material medium, through a field such as the electromagnetic field.

Shock waves are characterized by an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in the characteristics of the medium. Across a shock there is always an extremely rapid rise in pressure, temperature and density of the flow. In supersonic flows, expansion is achieved through an expansion fan. A shock wave travels through most media at a higher speed than an ordinary wave.

Unlike solutions (another kind of nonlinear wave), the energy of a shock wave dissipates relatively quickly with distance. Also, the accompanying expansion wave approaches and eventually merges with the shock wave, partially canceling it out. Thus the sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is the sound wave resulting from the degradation and merging of the shock wave and the expansion wave produced by the aircraft.

Thus the sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is the sound wave resulting from the degradation and merging of the shock wave and the expansion wave produced by the aircraft.

When a shock wave passes through matter, the total energy is preserved but the energy which can be extracted as work decreases and entropy increases. This, for example, creates additional drag force on aircraft with shocks.

Oblique Shock


An oblique shock wave, unlike a normal shock, is inclined with respect to the incident upstream flow direction.

It will occur when a supersonic flow encounters a corner that effectively turns the flow into itself and compresses.

The upstream streamlines are uniformly deflected after the shock wave. The most common way to produce an oblique shock wave is to place a wedge into supersonic, compressible flow. Similar to a normal shock wave, the oblique shock wave consists of a very thin region across which nearly discontinuous changes in the thermodynamic properties of a gas occur. While the upstream and downstream flow directions are unchanged across a normal shock, they are different for flow across an oblique shock wave.

It is always possible to convert an oblique shock into a normal shock by a Galilean transformation.

EXPANSIONWAVES,RAYLEIGH AND FANNO FLOW



A Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan is a centered expansion process, which turns a supersonic flow around a convex corner.

The fan consists of an infinite number of Mach waves, diverging from a sharp corner. In case of a smooth corner, these waves can be extended backwards to meet at a point.

Each wave in the expansion fan turns the flow gradually (in small steps). It is physically impossible to turn the flow away from itself through a single "shock" wave because it will violate the second law of thermodynamics. Across the expansion fan, the flow accelerates (velocity increases) and the Mach number increases, while the static pressure, temperature and density decrease. Since the process is isentropic, the stagnation properties remain constant across the fan.

Prandtl-Meyer Function

2

= (M2) (M1)

Rayleigh flow


Rayleigh flow refers to diabetic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a variable.

Rayleigh flow

The heat addition causes a decrease in stagnation pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will cause both supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in choked flow. Conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic Mach number along the duct. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the maximum entropy occurs at M = 1. Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh.

Solving the differential equation leads to the relation shown below, where T0* is the stagnation temperature at the throat location of the duct which is required for thermally choking the flow. These values are significant in the design of combustion systems. For example, if a turbojet combustion chamber has a maximum temperature of T0* = 2000 K, T0 and M at the entrance to the combustion chamber must be selected so thermal choking does not occur, which will limit the mass flow rate of air into the engine and decrease thrust. For the Rayleigh flow model, the dimensionless change in entropy relation is shown below.

Fanno flow


Fanno flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of friction is considered.Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the Fanno flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant, the flow is assumed to be steady and one-dimensional, and no mass is added within the duct. The Fanno flow model is considered an irreversible process due to viscous effects. The viscous friction causes the flow properties to change along the duct. The frictional effect is modeled as a shear stress at the wall acting on the fluid with uniform properties over any cross section of the duct.

Fanno flow

For a flow with an upstream Mach number greater than 1.0 in a sufficiently long enough duct, deceleration occurs and the flow can become choked. On the other hand, for a flow with an upstream Mach number less than 1.0, acceleration occurs and the flow can become choked in a sufficiently long duct. It can be shown that for flow of calorically perfect gas the maximum entropy occurs at M = 1.0. Fanno flow is named after Gino Girolamo Fanno.

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

TRANSONIC FLOW OVER WING



In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over a small region of the wing reaches the speed of sound.

Critical Mach Number (Mcr)

For all aircraft in flight, the airflow around the aircraft is not exactly the same as the airspeed of the aircraft due to the airflow speeding up and slowing down to travel around the aircraft structure. At the Critical Mach number, local airflow in some areas near the airframe reaches the speed of sound, even though the aircraft itself has an airspeed lower than Mach 1.0. This creates a weak shock wave. At speeds faster than the Critical Mach number:

drag coefficient increases suddenly, causing dramatically increased drag in aircraft not designed for transonic or supersonic speeds, changes to the airflow over the flight control surfaces lead to deterioration in control of the aircraft.

In aircraft not designed to fly at the Critical Mach number, shock waves in the flow over the wing and tail plane were sufficient to stall the wing, make control surfaces ineffective or lead to loss of control such as Mach tuck. The phenomena associated with problems at the Critical Mach number became known as compressibility. Compressibility led to a number of accidents involving high-speed military and experimental aircraft in the 1930s and 1940s.

Drag Divergence Mach Number



The drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag on an airfoil or airframe begins to increase rapidly as the Mach number continues to increase. This increase can cause the drag coefficient to rise to more than ten times its low speed value.

The value of the drag divergence Mach number is typically greater than 0.6; therefore it is a transonic effect. The drag divergence Mach number is usually close to, and always greater than, the critical Mach number. Generally, the drag coefficient peaks at Mach 1.0 and begins to decrease again after the transition into the supersonic regime above approximately Mach 1.2.

The large increase in drag is caused by the formation of a shock wave on the upper surface of the airfoil, which can induce flow separation and adverse pressure gradients on the aft portion of the wing. This effect requires that aircraft intended to fly at supersonic speeds have a large amount of thrust.

In early development of transonic and supersonic aircraft, a steep dive was often used to provide extra acceleration through the high drag region around Mach 1.0. In the early days of aviation, this steep increase in drag gave rise to the popular false notion of an unbreakable sound barrier, because it seemed that no aircraft technology in the foreseeable future would have enough propulsive force or control authority to overcome it. Indeed, one of the popular analytical methods for calculating drag at high speeds, the Prandtl-Glauert rule, predicts an infinite amount of drag at Mach 1.0.

Two of the important technological advancements that arose out of attempts to conquer the sound barrier were the Whitcomb area rule and the supercritical airfoil. A supercritical airfoil is shaped specifically to make the drag divergence Mach number as high as possible, allowing aircraft to fly with relatively lower drag at high subsonic and low transonic speeds. These, along with other advancements including computational fluid dynamics, have been able to reduce the factor of increase in drag to two or three for modern aircraft designs

swept wing


A swept wing is a wing platform with a wing root to wingtip direction angled beyond (usually aft ward) the span wise axis, generally used to delay the drag rise caused by fluid compressibility.

swept wing

Unusual variants of this design feature are forward sweep, variable sweep wings , and pivoting wings. Swept wings as a means of reducing wave drag were first used on jet fighter aircraft. Today, they have become almost universal on all but the slowest jets (such as the A-10), and most faster airliners and business jets. The four-engine propellerdriven TU-95 aircraft has swept wings.

The angle of sweep which characterizes a swept wing is conventionally measured along the 25% chord line. If the 25% chord line varies in sweep angle, the leading edge is used; if that varies, the sweep is expressed in sections (e.g., 25 degrees from 0 to 50% span, 15 degrees from 50% to wingtip).

Transonic Area Rule

Within the limitations of small perturbation theory, at a given transonic Mach number, aircraft with the same longitudinal distribution of crosssectional area, including fuselage, wings and all appendages will, at zero lift, have the same wave drag. Why: Mach waves under transonic conditions are perpendicular to flow.

 

Implication: Keep area distribution smooth, constant if possible. Else, strong shocks and hence drag result. Wing-body interaction leading to shock formation:

Observed: cp distributions are such that maximum velocity is reached far aft at root and far forward at tip. Hence, streamlines curves in at the root, compress, shock propagates out.

Transonic Area Rule

Transonic Area Rule

In fluid dynamics, potential flow describes the velocity field as the gradient of a scalar function: the velocity potential..

As a result, a potential flow is characterized by an irrotational velocity field, which is a valid approximation for several applications. The irrotationality of a potential flow is due to the curl of a gradient always being equal to zero

In the case of an incompressible flow the velocity potential satisfies Laplace's equation. However, potential flows also have been used to describe compressible flows. The potential flow approach occurs in the modeling of both stationary as well as nonstationary flows. Applications of potential flow are for instance: the outer flow field for aerofoils, water waves, and groundwater flow. For flows (or parts thereof) with strong vorticity effects, the potential flow approximation is not applicable.

Mach wave


In fluid dynamics, a Mach wave is a pressure wave traveling with the speed of sound caused by a slight change of pressure added to a compressible flow.

Mach stem or Mach front



These weak waves can combine in supersonic flow to become a shock wave if sufficient Mach waves are present at any location. Such a shock wave is called a Mach stem or Mach front.

Mach angle


Thus it is possible to have shock less compression or expansion in a supersonic flow by having the production of Mach waves sufficiently spaced (cf. isentropic compression in supersonic flows). A Mach wave is the weak limit of an oblique shock wave (a normal shock is the other limit). They propagate across the flow at the Mach angle .

 

where M is the Mach number. Mach waves can be used in schlieren or shadowgraph observations to determine the local Mach number of the flow. Early observations by Ernst Mach used grooves in the wall of a duct to produce Mach waves in a duct, which were then photographed by the schlieren method, to obtain data about the flow in nozzles and ducts. Mach angles may also occasionally be visualized out of their condensation in air, as in the jet photograph below.

U.S. Navy F/A-18 breaking the sound barrier. The white halo is formed by condensed water droplets which are thought to result from an increase in air pressure behind the shock wave(see Prandtl-Glauert Singularity). The Mach angle of the weak attached shock made visible by the halo, is seen to be close to arcsine (1) = 90 degrees.