CHEMICAL BONDS

CHEMICAL BONDS In chemical reactions, atoms combine with one another to form more complex species. The forces that hold the atoms together in the new species are called chemical bonding.

Atoms of noble gases have stable valence octet or duplet electron arrangements. Therefore, they exist as mono atomic gases and are chemically unreactive.
Atoms of other elements cannot exist by themselves. They tend to achieve the stable valence octet electron arrangement by combining with other atoms to form new species through the formation of chemical bonds. The forces that hold the atoms together in the new species are called chemical bonding. There two main ways of forming chemical bonds between atoms; Covalent bonding and Ionic bonding. Covalent bonding results when atoms are joined together by sharing electrons. Ionic bonding results when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming positive and negative ions.

5.1 Understanding formation of compounds 5.2 Synthesising ideas on formation of ionic bond

A student is able to: 1. explain the stability of inert gases, 2. explain conditions for the formation of chemical bonds, 3. state types of chemical bonds 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A student is able to: explain formation of ions, write electron arrangements for the ions formed, explain formation of ionic bond, illustrate electron arrangement of an ionic bond, illustrate formation of ionic bond A student is able to: state the meaning of covalent bond, explain formation of covalent bond, illustrate formation of a covalent bond by drawing electron arrangement, illustrate formation of covalent bond, compare and contrast formation of ionic and covalent bonds

5.3 Synthesising ideas on formation of covalent bond

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

5.4 Analysing properties of ionic and covalent compounds

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

A student is able to: list properties of ionic compounds, list properties of covalent compounds, explain differences in the electrical conductivity of ionic and covalent compounds, describe differences in melting and boiling points of ionic and covalent compounds, compare and contrast the solubility of ionic and covalent compounds, state uses of covalent compounds as solvents.

STABILITY OF GROUP 18 ELEMENTS Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon

4 2

He

Atoms of Group 18 elements have duplet or octet valence electron arrangement. Atom does not need to share its electron with another atom
Neon

20 10

Ne

Helium 40 18 Argon

Ar

Atoms exist as monoatomic particles. Elements of Group 18 are inert

When sodium metal burns in chlorine gas, sodium chloride is produced

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Electron arrangement of sodium & chlorine atoms are 2.8.1 and 2.8.7 respectively. To attain stability each sodium atom loses 1 valence electron to a chlorine atom forming a Na+ ion and a chloride ion. The electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions creates ionic bond
A sodium atom

2Na + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(p)

A chlorine atom

Cl- Ion

Na+ Ion

Metallic elements normally exist as ions rather than atoms

Electron arrangement of a sodium atom is 2.8.1. To attain stability, each sodium atom loses one valence electron to a non metallic atom, forming a sodium ion, Na+ which has a stable valence octet electron arrangement

Sodium atom

Na+ ion
To attain stability, each magnesium atom losses 2 valence to nonmetallic atom(s) forming a magnesium ion, Mg2+ which has a stable valence octet electron arrangement.

2+

Magnesium atom

Mg2+ Ion

To attain stability each aluminium atom losses 3 valence electrons to form an aluminium ion, Al3+ which has a stable valence octet electron arrangement.

3+

Aluminium atom

Al3+ Ion

Al - 3e
or

Al 3+ Al3+ + 3e

Al

To attain stability a non-metallic atom relatively has greater tendency to accept electron(s) to form a negatively charged ion

A chlorine atom gains an electron from an atom of metallic element to form a chloride ion, Clwhich has a stable valence octet electron arrangement.

Chlorine atom

Cl- ion

Oxygen atom is not stable. When it reacts with a metallic atom, each oxygen atom gains two electrons forming an oxide ion. Atom oxygen

2-

O2- ion

Magnesium burns in oxygen gas to produce magnesium oxide

Mg

Oxygen atom magnesium atom To attain stability, each Mg atom loses 2 electrons to an oxygen atom forming a Mg2+ ion and an oxide, O2- Both ions attain a stable valence octet electron arrangement. The electrostatic force of attraction between the oppositely charged ions create ionic bonds.

2+
Mg O

2-

Mg2+ Ion

O2- Ion

Burning of aluminium in oxygen to produce aluminium oxide

Aluminium

oxygen

Aluminium atom

Al Al

Oxygen atom

3+ 2-

3+

2-

2-

Electrostatic force of attraction between Al3+ ions and O2- ion is called the ionic bond

IONIC BOND Ionic bond are formed when valence electrons are transferred from metallic atoms to non-metallic atoms.

The process of transferring electrons enables both atoms to achieve the stable valence electron arrangement. The atoms which loses the electron becomes a cation (+ve ion), while the atom which receives the electron becomes an anion.

Oppositely charged ions are formed which attract each other through strong electrostatic forces of attraction, forming the ionic bond.

Physical properties of ionic compounds

Physical properties of ionic bond Ionic compound are usually crystalline solids at room temperature. Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points Explanation in terms of their structure and bonding The ions are arranged in a highly regular fashion, with strong electrostatic forces of attraction(ionic bonds) between the ions. The electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions(ionic bonds) is very strong and extends over entire crystalline structure large amounts of energy required to break or weaken the bonds. In the solid structure the ions are held in fixed position. When molten or in aqueous solution, the ions are mobile, so a flow of electric current is possible Water molecules are polar and are attracted to the charged ions in the ionic compound. This helps to pull the crystalline structure apart as the solid dissolves.

Ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity when solid, but do so when molten or in aqueous solution Most ionic compounds are soluble in water

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Sodium chloride is soluble in water Many ionic solids are soluble in water - although not all. The solubility of ionic compound depends on whether there are big enough attractions between the water molecules and the ions to overcome the attractions between the ions themselves. Positive ions are attracted to the lone pairs on water molecules and co-ordinate (dative covalent) bonds may form. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with negative ions.

Dissolution of NaCl

The structure of solid crystal of ionic compound

Na+ ClNa+

ClNa+ Cl-

Na+ ClNa+

ClNa+ Cl-

Na+ ClNa+

ClNa+ Cl-

In solid state, each Na+ ion is bonded to six Cl- ions and vice-versa. It makes the whole solid structure as a molecule.

Na+
276 pm

Cl-

Mg2+

O2-

Oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction. The electrostatic forces of attraction increases with the increase of the electrical charge carried by the ions and with the decrease in the distance of the ions involved.

205 ppm

Covalent Compound Covalent bonding occurs between nonmetals Electrons are not transferred but shared in order to attain stability in the atoms that are used in bonding.

Atoms of non metal elements are unstable. Their atoms contain valence electrons 4 . How these atoms attain stability?

nitrogen Carbon

Oxygen

Elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine and chlorine exist as molecules. This is because their atoms do not attain stable valence octet electron arrangement. To attain stable octet electron arrangement atoms of these elements will share their valence electrons to form covalent bond.
H H

Energy

Molecular hydrogen is more stable than atomic hydrogen because electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of the two H atoms and the shared electrons reduces the potential energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

Atom Fluorin Atom Fluorin

Electron arrangement of a fluorine atom is 2.7. It is unstable. Each fluorine atom contributes 1 valence electron for sharing with another fluorine atom to attain a stable valence octet electron arrangement. Electron arrangement of fluorine molecule.

There is an electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of the two fluorine atoms and the electrons that are shared between them. A covalent bond is formed when two electrons are shared between two atoms.

Oxygen atom

Oxygen atom

Oxygen molecule , O2

Represented by its structural formula

O=O

The electron arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6. The atom is unstable. To attain stability each atom will share two of its unpaired valence electrons with another atom of oxygen to form a double covalent bond

A nitrogen atom

The electron arrangement of a nitrogen is 2.5

Each nitrogen atom has 2.5 electron arrangement which is unstable. To attain a stable octet electron arrangement. Three unpaired valence electrons of a nitrogen atom will be paired up with three unpaired valence electrons of another nitrogen atom to form a triple covalent bond

The structural formula is represented as

N N

The formation of covalent bond can also be represented by Lewis electrons dote diagram which shows the arrangement of valence electrons of all atoms involved in a molecule.

Fluorine molecule Oxygen

Formation of covalent compound

1. Hydrogen chloride

Atom Hydrogen The electron arrangement of Hydrogen and chlorine atoms are 1. and 2.8.7 respectively. When hydrogen and chlorine react, each chlorine atom will share its single unpaired valence electron with the valence electron of the hydrogen atom to form a single covalent bond. Lewis structure diagram

Chlorine atom

H
or

Cl Cl

Chlorine and hydrogen atoms attain stable octet electron arrangement.

When hydrogen is burnt in oxygen water vapour is produced.

Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom Has a single valence electron

An oxygen atom has six valence electrons. Two of the valence electrons are unpaired. An oxygen atom shares two its unpaired valence electrons with two hydrogen atoms which contributes one valence electron each to form two single covalent bonds.

O H
or

H
O H

Formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen

hydrogen atom nitrogen atom The electron arrangement of nitrogen atom is 2.5. Three of the five valence electrons are unpaired. Each nitrogen atom shares three of its valence electrons with three hydrogen atoms each shares its single valence electron to form three single covalent bonds

Lewis structure

N H H

Formation of methane CH4 from carbon and hydrogen

Hydrogen atom

Carbon atom

Each carbon atom has 4 unpaired valence electrons.

Each carbon atom shares 4 of its valence electrons with 4 hydrogen atoms, each shares its single valence electron to form 4 single covalent bonds.

structure Lewis Molecular formula H H C H H

CH4

Formation of carbon dioxide

Carbon atom

Oxygen atom

Each carbon atom has 4 valence electrons to be shared with two oxygen atoms each shares two of its valence electrons to form two double covalent bonds that bind a carbon atom with two oxygen atom. Each atom in the molecule attains a stable octet electron arrangement. Lewis structure of CO2

O C O

Formation of CCl4

Carbon atom

Chlorine atom

Lewis structure

Cl Cl C Cl Cl

Physical properties of covalent compounds

Physical properties of covalent compounds Covalent compounds have low melting points and boiling points.

Explanation in terms of their structure and bonding The particles consist of discrete molecules which are held together by the weak inter-molecular forces of attraction, hence very little energy is required to break the forces apart.

Covalent compounds cannot There are no mobile ions in a covalent conduct electricity in any physical compound. state. Covalent compounds are soluble in organic solvents but not in water Covalent molecules are not readily hydrated by water molecules

Structure of covalent compound Particles of covalent compound consist of discrete molecules which are held together by weak inter-molecular forces of attraction.

Water

O H H

Characteristic of ionic compound. In solid state ionic compounds form crsytalline solid. The ions are arrange in orderly manner according to certain geometrical shape. All ions are held by a network of ionic bonds. The crystal are very hard but brittle. Ion Na+ Sodium chloride crystal

Ion Cl-

pure NaCl crystal

Ionic compound can conduct electricity

+
Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Cl-

ClNa+

Cl-

Cl-

In solid state the ions are strongly bonded by a network of ionic bonding. Ions cannot move freely. In molten state or in aqueous solution the ionic bonds are broken and the ions are free to move. The negatively charged ions move toward the +ve electrode while the positively charged ions move to the ve electrode

Ionic compounds have very high melting point.

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

ClNa+

ClNa+

ClNa+

Cl-

Cl-

Cl-

Cl-

To melt the solid of ionic compound high amount of heat energy is required to break up all the ionic bonds that bind all the Na+ and Clions. Enormous amount of heat energy is required.

ClNa+

Na+ Na+

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

Na+

ClNa+

ClNa+

ClClNa+

ClNa+

Cl-

Cl-

ClNa+

In molten state

Ice crystal

To melt a solid covalent compound a small amount of heat energy is required to overcome weak inter- molecular forces of attraction. During the melting process covalent bonds within the molecule are not broken.

Hydrogen bonds

O
H H

Water as a polar molecule

H O
+

H O
-

H H C H H

Metallic bonds

Positive ion

Free electrons

Metallic bond is formed when valence electrons of metal atoms are not localized to the particular atoms but are moving around within the metal structure. As a result, interaction between free electrons and the metal ions are established to form metallic bonding.