Cell

Instructor Yelena Dunina Barkovskaya

Cell Theory
Developed from Robert Hooke s and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek research
All living things are composed of one or more cells. Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals All cells come from the division of preexisting cells Cells perform all vital physiological functions. Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Cell Types
Somatic cells (soma = body)
All body cells except sex cells and Stem cells

Sex cells (germ cells)

Male sperm Female oocyte

Stem cells
Not differentiated

Cell
A cell is surrounded by a watery medium known as the extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid) Cytoplasm Cytosol = liquid Intracellular structures collectively known as organelles Plasma membrane (cell membrane) separates cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid

A single living cell from the leaf of a poplar tree

amoeba proteus

Plasma Membrane
Double layer of phospholipids' molecules Hydrophilic heads toward watery environment, both sides Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails inside membrane Water proof, permeable for O2, CO2, alcohol, steroids

Quiz
Functions of the plasmalemma include all of the following, except
A) separation of the cytoplasm from the extracellular fluid. B) regulation of exchange of materials with the extracellular environment. C) sensitivity to chemical changes in the extracellular fluid. D) thermal insulation. E) structural support.

Membrane Proteins
Integral proteins
cross membrane Channels
Allow free flow of water and solutes

Pumps
Transport solutes through membrane. Require Energy

Membrane Proteins
Peripheral proteins
bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane

Anchoring proteins (stabilizers)

Attach to inside or outside structures

Recognition proteins (identifiers)

Label cells as normal or abnormal

Receptor proteins
Bind and respond to ligands (ions, hormones)

Quiz
Which of the following is not a function of membrane proteins?
A) bind to ligands B) regulate the passage of ions C) act as carrier molecules for various solutes D) act as anchors or stabilizers for the cell membrane E) cell nutrient

Membrane Carbohydrates
Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
Extend outside cell membrane Form sticky sugar coat (glycocalyx)

Function:
Lubrication and protection Anchoring and locomotion Recognition (immune response)

Resting Potential
The membrane potential is transmembrane electrical potential difference expressed inside with respect to outside.

Membrane potential
Membrane potential is a result of :
1. Concentration gradient across plasma membrane for K+, Na+, Cl-. 2. A unequal relative membrane permeability for K+, Na+, Cl-.

Ionic Gradients for

Ion K+ Na+ ClIntracellular mM 140 10 6

+, Na

+, K

Cl

Extracellular mM 5 145 106

All animal cells in the resting state have greater permeability for K+ than for Na+

Membrane potential
Equilibrium Potential
The transmembrane potential at which there is no net movement of a particular ion across the cell membrane Examples E K+ = 90 mV E Na+ = +66 mV

Goldman equation

Quiz
Which of the following about a cell's resting transmembrane potential is false?
A) inside slightly more negative than outside. B) due to greater membrane permeability for potassium. C) is measured in millivolts. D) Na-K-pump contribute indirectly to the resting potential. E) is due to the separation of acids and bases.

Nonmembranous Organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli

Membranous Organelles
Nucleus (with nucleoli) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Peroxisomes Mitochondria

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli
RNA complex Function Protein synthesis

Free ribosomes manufacture proteins for cell Fixed ribosomes manufacture proteins for secretion

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli
Large protein complexes. Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Building structural proteins, maintain shape and strength
Microfilaments Intermediate Microtubules

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Microfilaments thin filaments composed of the protein actin

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Intermediate filaments
filaments, lack polarity

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Thick filaments (myosin)
are a family of MOTOR proteins

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Microtubules
large, hollow polar tubes of tubulin protein

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Paired organelles in animal cells, located near the nucleus in the CENTROSOME, a granular mass that serves as an organizing center for microtubules.

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli
Small hair-like extensions Motile cilia - Move the cell around or something around the cell (sperm; lungs epithelia) Non-Motile Cilia: sensing the external environment (i.e., smell), and sensing fluid flow (e.g., in kidneys).

Nonmembranous organelles
Ribosomes Proteasomes Cytoskeleton Centrioles Cilia Microvilli Membrane
formed by actin filaments.

Function increase the surface area of cell; absorbtion, secretion

Quiz
Microfilaments
A) anchor the cytoskeleton to membrane proteins B) control the consistency of cytoplasm C) with myosin, produce cell movement D) all of the above E) B and C only

Membranous organelles
Nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Peroxisomes Mitochondria

Nucleus
Largest organelle

Nuclear envelope
Double lipid bilayer

Perinuclear space
Between the two layers of the nuclear envelope

Nuclear pores
Communication passages

Nucleus
DNA
Chromatin - Loosely coiled DNA
(not dividing cell)

Chromosomes - Tightly coiled

DNA (dividing cells)

Nucleoplasm
Fluid containing ions, enzymes, nucleotides, and some RNA

Nuclear matrix - Support

filaments

Nucleoli
Made of RNA, enzymes, and histones Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
Protein translation Folding and transport of proteins to be used in the cell membrane receptors and other membrane proteins), or to be secreted ; Sequestration of Ca2+

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

Production and storage of glycogen, steroids and other macromolecules

Golgi apparatus
Function:
To process and package proteins and macromolecules after their synthesis and before they make their way to their destination

Lysosomes
Enzyme-containing vesicles
lyso- = dissolve, soma = body

Primary lysosome
formed by Golgi apparatus and inactive enzymes

Secondary lysosome
lysosome fused with damaged organelle or fused with endosome

Functions
Clean up inside cells Eject wastes by exocytosis

Cellular Endomembrane system

Constant membrane flow An exchange of membrane parts by vesicles

Includes:
Nuclear envelope Smooth and Rough ER Lysosomes Transport vesicles Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane

Quiz
Examination of a sample of glandular cells reveals an extensive network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Which of the following is the likeliest product of these cells?
A) digestive enzymes B) steroid hormones C) protein hormones D) transport proteins E) antibodies

Peroxisomes
Carry out oxidative reactions using molecular oxygen (neutralize free radicals) Produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a product of oxidative reactions

Self replicating

Mitochondria
Cellular power plants Main function:
production of ATP and regulation of cellular metabolism Smooth outer membrane; Inner membrane with numerous folds (cristae)

Matrix contains enzymes,

mtDNA and ribosomes

Mitochondria
Genome ~16Kb (Maternal inheritance) In humans mitochondria divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell, rather than in phase with the cell cycle

Mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism
C6H12O6 + O2+ ADP -> CO2 + H2O + ATP 36-38 ATP molecule from the oxidation of one glucose molecule (anaerobic 2 ATP molecules)

Quiz
Each of the following statements concerning mitochondria is true, except one. Identify the exception
A) The cristae increase the inner surface area of the organelle. B) The matrix contains metabolic enzymes involved in energy production. C) Respiratory enzymes are attached to the surface of the cristae. D) The mitochondria contain no DNA. E) The mitochondria produce most of a cell's ATP.

DNA Structure
DNA molecules
double helix Gene - region of genomic sequence, corresponding to a unit of inheritance Genetic code - mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences, called codons, and amino acids

DNA
23 pairs
Autosome Sex chromosome

Centromere Arm
(short or long)

Chromatid
one among the two identical copies of DNA

Quiz
Chromosomes consist of ________ and ________.
A) RNA; carbohydrates B) DNA; lipids C) DNA; proteins D) water; RNA E) RNA; proteins

Gene
A gene is the basic unit of heredity A portion a DNA that encodes for a protein
Promoter Stop codon Exon Intron

Transcription
Building the mRNA molecule
A portion of a DNA molecule unwinds, exposing the gene encoding for the protein Nucleotides, with the help of enzymes, move along one strand of the exposed gene to form a molecule of mRNA mRNA leave nucleus and enter the cytoplasm via nuclear pores

Transcription
RNA processing is to generate a mature mRNA Capping - add 7methylguanylate (m7G) to the 5' end Polyadenilation - add a poly-A tail to the 3' end
Splicing - remove introns and join exons

Translation
Ribosome binds with mRNA and read one codon at a time Each codon stands for a specific amino acid. When codon is read, the corresponding amino acid is activated by an enzyme anticodon of tRNA molecule binds with the codon

Translation
Anticodon binds to codon A second tRNA picks up another amino acid and bring it to a ribosome The first tRNA releases its aminoacis to the second tRNA and leave the site Two amino acids form a peptide bond using ATP The ribosome reads the next codon

Quiz
The mRNA sequence that is complementary to the sequence ATC on DNA is
A) ATC. B) TAG. C) UAG. D) AUG. E) AUC.

Translation
Protein processing in the Golgi and RER
Taking off initial methionine Taking off first or last amino acids Cutting peptide chain Phosphorylation Assembling subunits

Quiz
As each codon arrives at the active site of a ribosome, it attracts another molecule containing the anticodon. This molecule is called
A) DNA. B) mRNA. C) rRNA. D) tRNA. E) RER.

Quiz
Messenger RNA is vital to the cell because
A) mRNA can leave the nucleus. B) mRNA cannot leave the nucleus. C) DNA can leave the nucleus. D) DNA cannot leave the nucleus. E) both A and D

Membrane Transport
Transport through a plasma membrane can be
Passive (no energy required) Active (requires energy)

Membrane Transport
Diffusion (passive) Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active) Vesicular transport (active)

Passive Transport
Diffusion
- is a function of the concentration gradient Molecules mix randomly Solute spreads through solvent Solutes move down a concentration gradient

Passive Transport
Factors Affecting Diffusion
Distance the particle has to move Molecule size
Smaller is faster

Temperature
More heat, faster motion

Gradient size
The difference between high and low concentrations

Electrical forces
Opposites attract, like charges repel

Passive Transport
Diffusion Across Plasma Membranes: Simple lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, and steroids) , dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)

Passive Transport
Diffusion across plasma membranes:
Channel mediated Materials that pass through transmembrane proteins:
Water Ions and other water soluble compounds

Factors in channel-mediated diffusion

selectivity filter (charge, size)

Passive Transport
Osmosis (special case of
diffusion) - is a diffusion of water across the cell membrane
More solute molecules, lower concentration of H2O Membrane must be freely permeable to H2O H2O diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solutes Volume increases on the side with more solutes

Passive Transport
Osmotic Pressure
The pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane

Passive Transport
Osmolarity - number of osmoles of solute per
liter of solution (osmol/L)

Tonicity - a measure of the osmotic pressure of

two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane

Passive Transport
Any dissolved solute contributes to the osmolarity of a solution Solutes with low membrane permeability have far greater osmotic effect Two fluids may have equal osmolarity, but different tonicity

Passive Transport
Isotonic (iso- = equal)
equal concentration of impermeable solutes across membrane

Hypotonic (hypo- = below)

Has less solutes and loses water through osmosis Cell Ruptures (hemolysis)

Hypertonic (hyper- = above)

Has more solutes and gains water by osmosis. A cell loses water - crenation of red blood cells

Passive Transport
Carrier-mediated transport
(facilitated diffusion )
Specificity
- one transport protein, one set of substrates

Saturation limits
- rate depends on transport proteins amount, not substrate

Regulated by hormones Molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein protein changes shape, molecules pass through. Receptor site is specific to certain molecules.

Secondary Active
Uses Na+ concentration gradient or electrical gradient across plasma membrane Cotransport (symport)
- glucose, amino acids

Countertransport (antiport)

Active Transport
Pumps move ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+)
Exchange pump countertransports two ions at the same time (Na+/Ca2+ exchanger in cardiac muscle) -move substrates against concentration gradient -require energy (ATP)

Active Transport
Vesicular Transport
Endocytosis (inside)
Requires energy Receptor mediated

Receptors (glycoproteins)
bind target molecules (ligands)

Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and receptors into the cell

Active Transport
Vesicular Transport
Exocytosis
(exo- = outside)

Pinocytosis - endosomes drink extracellular fluid Phagocytosis - engulf large objects in phagosomes

Active Molecular motors

Allow unidirectional transport inside the cell
Myosin Kinesin Dynein

Rotary motors
ATP synthase Basal bodies (flagella, cilia)

Quiz
Diffusion of a substance across the cell membrane is influenced by all of the following, except
A) hydrolysis of ATP. B) the presence of the membrane channels. C) the charge on the ion. D) concentration gradient. E) lipid solubility.

Quiz
The process by which molecules such as glucose are moved into cells along their concentration gradient with the help of membrane-bound carrier proteins is called
A) osmosis. B) facilitated diffusion. C) active transport. D) endocytosis. E) exocytosis.

Quiz
All of the following membrane transport mechanisms are passive processes, except
A) diffusion. B) facilitated diffusion. C) vesicular transport. D) osmosis. E) all of the above

Cell Life Cycle

The series of events in a cell leading to its division and duplication. Cyclins and cyclindependent kinases (CDKs) determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle

Cell Life Cycle

Cell Life Cycle

Interphase The nondividing period

G0 phase specialized cell functions only G1 phase cell growth, organelle duplication, protein synthesis S phase DNA replication and histone synthesis DNA strands unwind G2 phase finishes protein synthesis

Mitosis

Cell Life Cycle

Interphase G2 phase
G2 phase finishes protein synthesis and centriole replication

Divides duplicated DNA into two sets of chromosomes

DNA coils tightly into chromatids Chromatids connect at a centromere

Mitosis
Prophase
Nucleoli disappear Centriole pairs move to cell poles Spindle fibers extend between centriole pairs Nuclear envelope disappears Spindle fibers attach to kinetochore

Mitosis
Metaphase
Chromosomes align in a central plane (metaphase plate)

Mitosis
Anaphase
Microtubules pull chromosomes apart Daughter chromosomes group near centrioles

Mitosis
Telophase
Nuclear membranes reform Chromosomes uncoil Nucleoli reappear Cell has two complete nuclei

Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Cleavage furrow around metaphase plate Membrane closes, producing daughter cells

Rate of cell division

Slower mitotic rate means longer cell life Cell division requires energy (ATP) Muscle cells do not divide Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract) live only days or hours

Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
Remove
Damaged cells Infected cell

Important for differentiation Prevent cancer Apoptosis vs. necrosis

Tumors and Cancer

Cancer develops in steps
Abnormal cell Primary tumor Metastasis Secondary tumor

Tumors and Cancer

Tumor (neoplasm)
Enlarged mass of cells Abnormal cell growth and division Benign tumor
Encapsulated Does not grow in an unlimited manner Not life threatening

Malignant tumor
Spreads into surrounding tissues (invasion) Starts new tumors (metastasis)

Immortal cell lines

Observed in malignant tumor High rate of division Active telomerase

Quiz
As genes are functionally eliminated, the cell becomes limited in the range of proteins it can make. This specialization process is termed
A) adaptation. B) differentiation. C) structural integration. D) cellular activation. E) apoptosis.

Quiz
Which phase of the cell cycle has the most variable duration?
A) S phase B) G0 phase C) G1 phase D) G2 phase E) V phase