HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 3

Chapter 3 METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES

Generally, the research design is explained in chapter among those topics included in the research design which need to be given some kind of explanations are the following: Method of Research Used Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument Sampling Design Statistical Treatment

Method of Research
The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.

The Sampling Design

Before the collection of data starts in any research projects, the proportion of the population to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the sample must have been finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about the complete procedure be used in determining his sample. Among the things that he should explain are: The size of the population; The study population; The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used; The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling or a combination of two or more techniques; The actual computation of the sample; and The sample

The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be able to show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the appropriate technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid and reliable. To be able to discuss and explain very well his sampling procedures, the researcher must review sampling procedures in Chapter 12, Everything about sampling has been discussed in that part of the book.

Statistical Treatment of Data

The last part of this chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of data. The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific problems, and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly determine the kind of statistics to be used.

The role of statistics in research. With the advent of the computer age, statistics is now playing a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological research.

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4 - ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

In this chapter, the researcher makes his analysis, presentation, and interpretation of his data.

Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituents parts of categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually presentation.

Classification of data
Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics. Classification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the following: Qualitative ( kind ). Those having the same quality or are of the same kind are grouped together. Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. Geographical. Data may be classified according to their location. Chronological. In this, data are classified according to the order of their occurrence.

Preparing Data for Presentation

Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or interview schedule have to be tallied one by one.

How to construct a talligram.

A talligram may be constructed as follows:
Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective members. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of the rows should be two more than the number of classes. Make columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of column should be two more than the number of subclasses.

 Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting data; textual, tabular, and graphical.

Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to supplement tabular presentation. The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The reader may even skip some statements.

Tabular Presentation of Data

Statistical table defined. A statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses are given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable form or forms. Purpose of a table. The purpose is to facilitate the study and interpretation , the making of inferences and implications of the relationships of statistical data. Table construction for data presentation is a part of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according to class or category.

Advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data. The advantages of the tabular over the textual presentation of data are:

Statistical tables are concise, and because data are systematically grouped and arranged, explanatory matter is minimal, Data are more easily read, understood and compared because of their systematic and logical arrangement into rows and columns. The reader can understand and interpret a great bulk of data rapidly because he can see significant relationships of data at once Tables give the whole information even without combining numerals with textual matter. This is so because tables are so constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood even without reading their textual presentation.

Geographical Presentation of Data

A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable itself, or quantitative changes of a variable in comparison with those another variable or variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.

Advantages of the graphic method. ( Bacani, et al, pp.54-55 )

According to Bacani, et al. the following are the advantages of the graphical method: It attracts attention effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is less likely to be overlooked. Redaers may skip tables but pause to look at charts. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in business reports more meaningful. ( Also in thesis reports ) It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a line exerts a more powerful effect in the readers mind than tabulated data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place. Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph. Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now considered by most businessman as indispensable accompaniment to good business reports. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation of numerical data.

Limitations of graphs. ( Bacani, et al., p. 55 ) If there are advantages there also disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:

Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare than tables. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.

Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be classified into the following types:
Bar graphs
Single vertical bar graph Single horizontal bar graph Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph Duo- directional or bilateral bar graph Subdivided or component bar graph Histogram

Linear graphs
Time series or chronological the chart Composite line chart Frequency polygon Ogive Band chart

Hundred percent graphs or charts

Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph Circle or pie graph

 Pictograms

 Statistical maps

 Ratio charts

Essential of a graph. The essential parts of a graph are the following:

Number. Charts or graphs are also numbered for reference purposes. The general practice is to write the number as Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure3, etc, at the bottom of the graph. Title. The same principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is usually written above the graph. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represent a certain amount of the variable which is the subject of the graph. The scale enables the reader to interpret the significance of a number of length or height units. Thus, if a leght or height unit is equal to 2, two length or height units equal 4, 3 length or height units equal 6, etc. The Y-axis represent the scale. Classification and arrangement. The principles of classification and arrangement are the same in graphs as in tables. Classes, categories, or time series are indicated at the X-axis and the scale units are indicated at the Y-axis. Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be about square, otherwise the length should be placed on the page in such a way that the margins at the left and at the right should be about the same, or the margin at the left is a little wider.

 HISTOGRAM
a histogram is composed of bars placed side by side whose heights indicate the magnitudes of their respective classes or categories. It is used with grouped or class frequency distributions.

 LINEAR GRAPH Linear graphs are good devices to show variations of values over successive periods of time. Changes in the data are indicated by the linear curves.

 BAND CHART
A band chart is a form of line graph of the time series variety. It shows the proportional variations of the component parts of a whole over a period of time.

 PIE CHART
The pie chart has the same principles and function as the rectangular chart. It is also equated to 100% and becauses the circles has 360, 1% is equated to 3.6 so that 60% must be equal to 216 (3.6x60)

 PICTOGRAMS
The pictogram or pictograph is used to portray data by means of pictures or symbols. Since the pictogram cannot portray data accurately, its only purpose is to make the comparison of magnitudes more vivid and clear.