Seismic refraction is a geophysical method used for investigating subsurface ground conditions utilising surface-sourced seismic waves.

The acquired data is computer processed and interpreted to produce models of the seismic velocity and layer thickness of the subsurface ground structure.

Pulses of low frequency seismic energy are emitted by a seismic source such as a hammer-plate, weight drop or buffalo gun. The type of source is dependant on local ground conditions and required depth penetration. Explosives are best for deeper applications but are constrained by environmental regulations. The seismic waves propagate downward through the ground until they are reflected or refracted off subsurface layers. Refracted waves are detected by arrays of 24 or 48 geophones spaced at regular intervals of 1 - 10 metres, depending on the desired depth penetration of the survey. Sources are positioned at each end of the geophone array to produce forward and reverse wave arrivals along the array. Additional sources may be used at intermediate or off-line positions for full coverage at all geophone positions.

Estimation of depth to bedrock Estimating Overburden Thickness Locates Geological Structures Evaluates Sand & Gravel Deposits Landfill investigations & define Ancient Landfill Sites Stratigraphic mapping Estimation of depth to water table Predicting the rippability of specific rock types Geotechnical investigations

Geophones output data as time traces which are compiled and processed by the seismograph. The basic components of a seismic trace are the direct wave, the reflected wave and the critically refracted wave. Wave refraction occurs at interfaces in the ground where the seismic velocity of the lower layer is greater than the velocity of the overlying layer. This condition normally applies in near surface site investigations where soil or fill overlies bedrock.

At geophone positions close to the seismic source, the first seismic wave arrivals are direct waves. However, beyond a critical distance from the source, the first arrivals change to refracted waves due to the faster relative velocity of the refracted waves. Interpretation procedures involve the accurate measurement of first arrivals from the time traces recorded at each geophone position. Interpretation techniques are applied to the first arrival times to calculate the seismic velocities of the layers and the depths of individual refracting interfaces. The interfaces are correlated with real physical boundaries in the ground, such as the soil-bedrock interface and other lithological boundaries, to produce a model of the subsurface ground structure. The final interpretation is presented in a format that is easily understood by engineers.

When a ray encounters an inhomogeneity in its travels, for example a lithological contact with another rock, the incident ray transforms into several new rays. But profile length and source energy limit the depth penetration of the refraction method. Typically, a profile can only detect features at a depth of one-fifth survey length.

Non-invasive Continuous Coverage Reduce Permitting Effort Cost Effective Provides Valuable Information Reduce/Target Drilling

Refraction observations generally employ fewer source and receiver locations and are thus relatively cheap to acquire.
Little processing is done on refraction observations with the exception of trace scaling or filtering to help in the process of picking the arrival times of the initial ground motion. Because such a small portion of the recorded ground motion is used, developing models and interpretations is no more difficult than our previous efforts with other geophysical surveys.

Refraction seismic observations require relatively large Source-receiver offsets (distancs between the source and where the ground motion is recorded, the receiver). Refraction seismic only works if the speed at which motions propagate through the Earth increases with depth. Refraction seismic observations are generally interpreted in terms of layers. These layers can have dip and topography. Refraction seismic observations only use the arrival time of the initial ground motion at different distances from the source (i.e., offsets). A model for the subsurface is constructed by attempting to reproduce the observed arrival times.

P-waves traveling through rock are analogous to sound waves travelling through air. The speed a P-wave propagates through a medium depends on the physical properties (i.e. rigidity, density, saturation) and degree of homogeneity of the rock. Spherical wave fronts emanate from a source, as well as ray paths. Ray paths travel normal to the spherical wave surface. For seismic refraction discussion, it is useful to imagine seismic waves as ray paths.

When a ray encounters an inhomogeneity in its travels, for example a lithological contact with another rock, the incident ray transforms into several new rays. A reflected wave enters and exits at the same angle measured to the normal of the boundary - angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

From Snell's Law, a ray path is dependent on the wave velocities through different layers. For refraction seismology, the critical angle is the most important angle value to understand. If angle (r) equals 90 degrees, then the refracted wave propagates along the boundary interface. One can solve for the critical angle (ic) by calculating inverse sine of (V1/V2). As the critically refracted wave propagates along the boundary, according to Huygen's Theory of Wavelets, the primary critically refracted wave acts as a source for new secondary wave fronts and ray paths. These secondary ray paths exit at the critical angle.

The distance between the source and first geophone to receive the refracted wave is termed critical distance. Cross-over distance is defined as the position where the refracted wave overtakes the direct wave.

In the ideal world (of engineering), refraction seismology is most easily understood through a horizontal two layer model. Seismic waves are generated from a source (sledge hammer). Geophone receivers record seismic signals received along the survey profile. Since P-waves travel at the fastest speeds, the first seismic signal received by a geophone represents the P-wave arrival. Five P-waves are of interest in refraction seismology: direct, diving, reflected, head, refracted. The direct wave propagates along the atmosphere-upper layer 1 boundary. A transmitted wave through layer 2 is termed a diving wave. A reflected wave enters with the same angle of incidence as exit angle. If the critical angle is achieved, the critically refracted head wave travels along the layer 1-layer 2 interface. Refracted waves propagate from the interface, with exit angles equal to the critical angle. With arrival time data collected, arrival times for P-waves are noted or computed from the seismographs. Arrival times can be represented on a travel-time graph or T-X plot, that is P-wave arrival times (usually in milliseconds) verses distance (geophone location).