PLANTS AND FUNGI

Chapter 15, p 327 - 350

Life on Land, 475 mya

New frontier: bright sunlight virtually endless on land, atmosphere had an abundance of CO2 and initially few pathogens or plant-eating animals.

Challenges: maintain moisture in cells, Support body in nonbuoyant medium, Reproduce/disperse offspring without water Anchor bodies to soil Obtain resources from soil and air

Maintaining moisture
Waxy cuticle Stomata: openings for gas exchange

Obtaining resources
Growth producing regions of cell division at the tips of

stems and roots called apical meristems.

Elongation and branching allows for maximum exposure to

resources.

Vascular tissue a network of thick walled cells joined

into narrow tubes that extend throughout the plant body.

Xylem: dead cells which convey water and minerals up from roots. Phloem: living cells which distribute sugars throughout the plant.

Support
Cell walls of some plant tissues (including xylem) are

reinforced by lignin for strength.

No lignen in mosses limits height.

Reproduction
Mosses and ferns produce gametes in male and female

structures called gametangia.

Egg remains in the female gametangia and is fertilized there by a

sperm which swims through a film of water.

Pines and flowering plants have pollen grains which

contain sperm-producing cells.

Pollen grains are carried to the egg by wind or animals.

All plants the fertilized egg develops into an embryo while

attached to and nourished by the parent plant.

Alternation of Generations
The diploid (2n) and haploid (n) stages are distinct,

multicellular bodies they alternate.

Haploid generation: produces gametes, called

gametophyte.
Diploid generation: produces spores, called sporophyte.

Figure 17.3_s5

Gametophyte plant (n) Sperm

Spores (n)
Meiosis

Gametes (n)

Egg

Fertilization

Zygote (2n)

Sporophyte plant (2n)

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Figure 17.4_s5

Gametophytes (n)
5

Mitosis and development

Male Sperm (n)

1

Spores (n) Sporangium Stalk

Female

Egg (n)

Female gametangium Fertilization

Sporophyte (2n) Meiosis

4 3

Zygote (2n) Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Mitosis and development

Moss life cycle

Dominated by gametophyte stage.
Gametes develop in male and female gametangia Sperm fertilizes egg in female gametangium Zygote develops by mitosis into a sporophyte, still attached to

gametophyte. Meiosis occurs in the sporangia at the tips of the sporophyte stalks. Haploid spores are released from the sporangium Spores undergo mitosis and develop into gametophyte plants.

Figure 17.5_s4
1 2

Sperm (n)

Mitosis and development

Gametophyte (n) Female gametangium (n) Egg (n) Fertilization

Spores (n)

Meiosis
5

Clusters of sporangia
Zygote (2n)

3 4

Mitosis and development

Mature sporophyte

New sporophyte (2n) Key Haploid (n) Gametophyte (n) Diploid (2n)

Ferns
Like most plants are dominated by the sporophyte life

cycle.
Fern gametophytes are small and inconspicuous Sperm requires moisture to reach egg

Zygote remains on the gametophyte as it developsinto a

sporophyte. Gametophyte then dies, sporophyte becomes a plant. Spores are produced when cells undergo meiosis, spores then released and develop into gametophytes by mitosis.

Pine tree
A sporophyte with gametophytes in its cones. In seed plants a structure within the sporophyte houses all reproductive stages: spores, eggs, sperm, zygotes, embryos. In gymnosperms this structure is the cone. Each scale (leaf) of the cone contains sporangia that produce spores by meiosis. The spores are not released but give rise to gametophytes within the cone, which later produce gametes, which unite to form a new sporophyte.

Figure 17.7_s4

Ovulate cone

Spore mother cell (2n)

Scale
4

3
2

Pollination

Ovule

Longitudinal section

Sporangium (2n) Integument

Meiosis

Pollen cone Meiosis

Female gametophyte (n)

Sperm (n) Male gametophyte (pollen grain)
5

Eggs (n)

Longitudinal section A mature sporophyte Seed coat Seed Embryo (2n) Food supply Zygote (2n)

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Pine tree
Two types of cones: smaller ones produce male

gametophytes (pollen) which develop from spores. Ovulate cone produces female gametophyte, each stiff scale bears a pair of ovules.
When pollen lands on an ovulate scale and enters the ovule =

pollination. Meiosis occurs in a spore mother cell within the ovule. One haploid cell develops into the female gametophyte which makes eggs. Tube grows out of pollen grain, releases sperm into ovule = fertilization. One zygote develops into a sporophyte embryo. Ovule develops into a seed with food supply and seed coat. Seed is dispersed by wind, favorable conditions allow germination.

Question:
Which of the following is a plant with flagellated sperm and a sporophyte dominated life cycle?
A. Chytrid B. Moss C. Charophyte D. Fern E. Liverwort

Figure 17.8B

Flower

Stigma Style Carpel Ovary

Anther Filament Petal Sepal Ovule Receptacle

Stamen

Angiosperm plant
Is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers.
Meiosis in the anthers produces haploid spores that undergo

mitosis to form pollen grains. Meiosis in the ovule, a haploid spore that undergoes mitosis and forms the cells which become an egg. Pollination when pollen lands on stigma, tube grows into ovule from pollen, sperm fertilizes egg. Seed develops from ovule: embryo (new sporophyte), food supply, seed coat. Ovarys wall thickens forming fruit which encloses seeds. Seed germinates, develops into sporophyte plant.

Figure 17.9_s5

Anther

Pollen grains (n) (male gametophytes)

3

Meiosis Egg within a female gametophyte (n)

Stigma Pollen grain Pollen tube

Meiosis

Ovary Sporophyte (2n)

Ovule Ovule containing female sporangium (2n)

Sperm

Seeds

Food supply Fruit (mature ovary) Seed coat

5

Fertilization
4

Seed

Embryo (2n)

Zygote (2n)

Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n)

Fruit
Ripened ovary of a flower which helps disperse seeds.
Many angiosperms produce fleshy edible fruits. While unripe they are green and camouflaged, when ripe fruit turns

a bright color for advertising.

Question:
Angiosperms are different from all other plants because only they have
A. A vascular system B. Flowers C. A life cycle that involves alternation of generations D. Seeds E. A dominant sporophyte phase

Question:
Which of the following terms includes all the others?
A. Angiosperm B. Gymnosperm C. Vascular plant D. Fern E. Seed plant

Question
Which of the following produce eggs and sperm? (explain)
A. The sexual reproductive structures of a fungus B. Fern sporophytes C. Moss gametophytes D. The anthers of a flower E. Moss sporangia

Question
The diploid sporophyte stage is dominant in the life cycles of all of the following except
A. A pine tree B. A dandelion C. A rose bush D. A fern E. A moss

Fungi
All are heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption.

Feeding structures are a network of threadlike filaments

called hyphae which grow into a mass known as mycelium. Fungal hyphae are surrounded by a cell wall, mostly made of chitin strong flexible nitrogen containing polysaccharide.

Figure 17.14B

Reproductive structure Hyphae Spore-producing structures (tips of hyphae)

Mycelium

Fungi reproduction
Sexual reproduction: hyphae from each mycelium grow

toward each other, when they meet, cytoplams fuse. Many fungi have a heterokaryotic stage in which cells contain two genetically distinct haploid nuclei. Parent nuclei fuse forming short lived diploid phase. Zygotes undergo meiosis producing haploid spores.
Asexual reproduction: spore producing structures arise

from haploid mycelia. If asexual reproduction is the only means of reproduction, called imperfect fungi (yeasts, molds).

Fungi classification
Chytrids: only fungi with flagellated spores. Common in

lakes, ponds and soil. Decomposers or parasitic to protists, plants and animals.
Zygomycetes: zygotes produce haploid spores by

meiosis. Diverse group includes fast growing molds.

Ascomycetes: named for sac like structures called asci

which produce spores in sexual reproduction. Variety of habitats, unicellular yeasts to morels and cup fungi.

Fungi classification
Glomermycetes: form a type of mycorrhiza in which

hyphae that invade plant roots branch into tiny treelike structures called arbuscules. 90% of plants are symbiotic with glomeromycetes which deliver phosphate while receiving organic nutrients in exchange.
Basidiomycetes: club shaped, spore producing structure,

called basidium. Good decomposers, mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs.

Lichens
Symbiotic association of millions of unicellular green

algae or cyanobacteria held in a mass of fungal hyphae.

Fungus provides habitat, lichens photosynthesize

Rugged, able to live where there is little or no soil. Withstand severe drought.

Can not withstand air pollution, get most of their minterals

from air.