Lecture 4 - Spread Spectrum Technologies

Spread Spectrum Technologies
(1 September, 2006)
February 2005
Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
Define spread spectrum technologies and how they are used Describe modulation and the different data rates Explain and compare FHSS, DSSS and OFDM List the factors that impact signal throughput and range
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Spread Spectrum
Spread spectrum is a communication technique that spreads a narrowband communication signal over a wide range of frequencies for transmission then de-spreads it into the original data bandwidth at the receive. Spread spectrum is characterized by: wide bandwidth and
low power
Jamming and interference have less effect on Spread spectrum because it is:
Resembles noise
Hard to detect Hard to intercept
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Narrowband vs Spread Spectrum

Narrowband (High Peak Power)
Power
Spread Spectrum (Low Peak Power)
Frequency
Narrow Band vs Spread Spectrum

Narrow Band Uses only enough frequency spectrum to carry the signal
High peak power

Easily jammed Spread Spectrum
The bandwidth is much wider than required to send to the signal.

Low peak power
Hard to detect
Hard to intercept
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Difficult to jam
Spread Spectrum Use

In the 1980s FCC implemented a set of rules making Spread Spectrum available to the public. Cordless Telephones
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Cell Phones Personal Communication Systems Wireless video cameras
Local Area Networks Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN) Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)
FCC Specifications
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 15 originally only described two spread spectrum techniques to be used in the licensed free Industrial, Scientific, Medical (ISM) band, 2.4 GHz, thus 802.11 and 802.11b.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) was not covered by the CFR and would have required licensing. 802.11a, employing OFDM, was created to work in the 5GHz
Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII)
In May, 2001 CFR, Part 15 was modified to allow alternative "digital modulation techniques".
This resulted in 802.11g which employs OFDM in the 2.4 GHz range February 2005 Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved 7
Wireless LAN Networks

Wireless LANs RF spread spectrum management techniques Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
Operates in the 2.4 Ghz range Rapid frequency switching 2.5 hops per second w/ a dwell time of 400ms. A predetermined pseudorandom pattern Fast Setting frequency synthesizers.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Operates in the 2.4 GHz range Digital Data signal is inserted into a higher data rate chipping code. A Chipping code is a bit sequence consisting of a redundant bit pattern. Barker, Gold, M-sequence and Kasami codes are employed Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Operates in both the 5 Ghz and 2.4 GHz range with a data rate of between 6
and 54 Mbps. 802.11a divides each channel into 52 low-speed sub-channels 48 sub-channels are for data while the other 4 are pilot carriers. The modulation scheme can be either BPSK, QPSK or QAM depending upon the speed of transmission.
FCC Radio Spectrum

Band Name VLF LF MF HF and VHF Cars, UHF radios, wireless SHF EHF
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Range 10 kHz - 30 kHz 30 kHz - 300 kHz 300 kHz - 3 MHz 3 MHz - 30 MHz 30 MHz - 328.6 MHZ 328.6 MHz - 2.9 GHz
Usage Cable Locating Equipment Maritime Mobile Service. Aircraft navigation, ham radio and Avalanche transceivers. CB radios, CAP, Radio telephone, Radio Astronomy. Cordless phones, Televisions, RC Aircraft, police and business radios. police radios, fire radios, business cellular phones, GPS, paging, networks and cordless phones. Doppler weather radar, satellite communications. Radio astronomy, military systems, vehicle radar systems, ham radio.
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2.9 GHz - 30 GHz 30 GHz and above
ISM Frequency Bands

UHF ISM S-Band 902 - 928 Mhz 2 - 4 Ghz
S-Band ISM (802.11b)

C-Band C-Band Satellite downlink C-Band Radar (weather)
2.4 - 2.5 Ghz

4 - 8 Ghz 3.7 - 4.2Ghz 5.25 - 5.925 Ghz
C-Band ISM (802.11a)

C-Band satellite uplink X-Band X-Band Radar (police/weather)
5.725 - 5.875 Ghz

5.925-6.425 Ghz 8-12 Ghz 9.5-10.55 Ghz
Ku-band
Ku-band Radar (Police)
12-18 Ghz
13.5-15 Ghz 15.7-17.7 Ghz
ISM - Industrial, Scientific and Medical

FHSS
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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Carrier changes frequency (HOPS) according to a pseudorandom Sequence.
Pseudorandom sequence is a list of frequencies. The carrier hops through this lists of frequencies. The carrier then repeats this pattern. During Dwell Time the carrier remains at a certain frequency. During Hop Time the carrier hops to the next frequency. The data is spread over 83 MHz in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. This signal is resistant but not immune to narrow band interference.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

An Example of a Co-located Frequency Hopping System
Transmiss ion Frequency (GHz)
2.479
Divided into 79 1 MHz Channels
2.401 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Elapsed Time in Milliseconds (ms) Channel 1

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Channel 2
Channel 78
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FHSS Contd
The original 802.11 FHSS standard supports 1 and 2 Mbps data rate.
FHSS uses the 2.402 2.480 GHz frequency range in the ISM band.
It splits the band into 79 non-overlapping channels with each channel 1 MHz wide. FHSS hops between channels at a minimum rate of 2.5 times per second. Each hop must cover at least 6 MHz The hopping channels for the US and Europe are shown below.
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FHSS Contd Dwell Time

The Dwell time per frequency is around 100 ms (The FCC specifies a dwell time of 400 ms per carrier frequency in any 30 second time period). Longer dwell time = greater throughput.
Shorter dwell time = less throughput

Hop Time
Is measured in microseconds (us) and is generally around 200-300 us.

FHSS Contd
Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying The FHSS Physical sublayer modulates the data stream using
Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying (GFSK).
Each symbol, a zero and a one, is represented by a different frequency (2 level GFSK) two symbols can be represented by four frequencies (4 level GFSK). A Gaussian filter smoothes the abrupt jumps between frequencies.
00 01 11 10
fc fd2 fc - fd1
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fc
fc + fd1 fc + fd2
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FHSS Disadvantages
Not as fast as a wired Lan or the newer WLAN Standards
Lower throughput due to interference.
FHSS is subject to interference from other frequencies in the ISM band because it hops across the entire frequency spectrum.
Adjacent FHSS access points can synchronize their hopping sequence to increase the number of colocated systems, however, it is prohibitively expensive.
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DSSS
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum increases the bandwidth of the signal
compared to narrow band by spreading the signal.

There are two major types of spread spectrum techniques:
FHSS and DSSS.

FHSS spreads the signal by hopping from one frequency to another across a bandwidth of 83 Mhz.
DSSS spreads the signal by adding redundant bits to the
signal prior to transmission which spreads the signal across 22 Mhz.

The process of adding redundant information to the
signal is called Processing Gain .

The redundant information bits are called Pseudorandom
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Numbers (PN).
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

DSSS works by combining information bits (data signal) with
higher data rate bit sequence (pseudorandom number (PN)).

The PN is also called a Chipping Code (eg., the Barker chipping
code)
The bits resulting from combining the information bits with the
chipping code are called chips - the result- which is then transmitted.
The higher processing gain (more chips) increases the signal's
resistance to interference by spreading it across a greater number of frequencies.

IEEE has set their minimum processing gain to 11. The number
of chips in the chipping code equates to the signal spreading ratio.

Doubling the chipping speed doubles the signal spread and the
required bandwidth.
Signal Spreading
The Spreader employs an encoding scheme (Barker or Complementary Code Keying (CCK). The spread signal is then modulated by a carrier employing either Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK), or Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK). The Correlator reverses this process in order to recover the original data.
DSSS Channels
Fourteen channels are identified, however, the FCC specifies only 11 channels for non-licensed (ISM band) use in the US.
Each channels is a contiguous band of frequencies 22 Mhz wide with each channel separated by 5 MHz.
Channel 1 = 2.401 2.423 (2.412 plus/minus 11 Mhz).

Channel 2 = 2.406 2.429 (2.417 plus/minus 11 Mhz). Only Channels 1, 6 and 11 do not overlap
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Spectrum Mask
A spectrum Mask represents the maximum power output for the channel at various frequencies.
From the center channel frequency, 11 MHz and 22 MHZ the signal must be attenuated 30 dB. From the center channel frequency, outside 22 MHZ, the signal is attenuated 50 dB.
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DSSS Frequency Assignments

The Center DSSS frequencies of each channel are only 5 Mhz apart but each channel is 22 Mhz wide therefore adjacent channels will overlap. DSSS systems with overlapping channels in the same physical space would cause interference between systems.
Co-located DSSS systems should have frequencies which are at least 5 channels apart, e.g., Channels 1 and 6, Channels 2 and 7, etc.
Channels 1, 6 and 11 are the only theoretically non-overlapping channels.
25 MHz 25 MHz
Channel 1 2.412 GHz
Channel 6 2.437 GHz
Channel 11 2.462 GHz
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DSSS Non-overlapping Channels

Each channel is 22 MHz wide. In order for two bands not to overlap (interfere), there must be five channels between them.
3 MHz
A maximum of three channels may be co-located (as shown) without overlap (interference). The transmitter spreads the signal sequence across the 22 Mhz wide channel so only a few chips will be impacted by interference.
22 MHz
Chan nel 1
Chan nel 6
Chan nel 11 f
2.401 GHz
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2.473 GHz
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DSSS Encoding and Modulation
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DSSS Encoding and Modulation

DSSS (802.11b) employs two types of encoding schemes and two types of modulation schemes depending upon the speed of transmission. Encoding Schemes
Barker Chipping Code: Spreads 1 data bit across 11 redundant bits at both 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps Complementary Code Keying (CCK): Maps 4 data bits into a unique redundant 8 bits for 5.5 Mbps Maps 8 data bits into a unique redundant 8 bits for 11 Mbps.
Modulation Schemes
Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK): Two phase shifts with each phase shift representing one transmitted bit.
Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK): Four phase shifts with each phase shift representing two bits.
DSSS Encoding
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Barker Chipping Code

802.11 adopted an 11 bit Barker chipping code. Transmission.
The Barker sequence, 10110111000, was chosen to spread
each 1 and 0 signal.

The Barker sequence has six 1s and five 0s. Each data bit, 1 and 0, is modulo-2 (XOR) added to the
eleven bit Barker sequence.

If a one is encoded all the bits change. If a zero is encoded all bits stay the same.
Reception.
A zero bit corresponds to an eleven bit sequence of six 1s. A one bit corresponds to an eleven bit sequence of six 0s.
Barker Sequence
Chipping Code
(Barker Sequence) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
10110111000
Original Data
1
One Bit
0
One Bit
Spread Data
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
Six 0s = 1
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Six 1s = 0
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Contd
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Complementary Code Keying (CCK)

Barker encoding along with DBPSK and DQPSK modulation schemes allow 802.11b to transmit data at 1 and 2 Mbps Complementary Code Keying (CCK) allows 802.11b to transmit data at 5.5 and 11 Mbps. CCK employs an 8 bit chipping code. The 8 chipping bit pattern is generated based upon the data to be transmitted. At 5.5 Mbps, 4 bits of incoming data is mapped into a unique 8 bit chipping pattern. At 11 Mbps, 8 bits of data is mapped into a unique 8 bit chipping pattern.
Complementary Code Keying (CCK) Contd

To transmit 5.5 Mbps 4 data bits is mapped into 8 CCK chipping bits.. The unique 8 chipping bits is determined by the bit pattern of the 4 data bits to be transmitted. The data bit pattern is:
b0, b1, b2, b3

b2 and b3 determine the unique pattern of the 8 bit CCK chipping code.
Note: j represents the imaginary number, sqrt(-1), and appears on the imaginary or quadrature axis of the complex plane.

To transmit 5.5 Mbps 4 data bits is mapped into 8 CCK chipping bits.. The unique 8 chipping bits is determined by the bit pattern of the 4 data bits to be transmitted. The data bit pattern is:
b0, b1, b2, b3

b0 and b1 determine the DQPSK phase rotation that is to be applied to the chip sequence. Each phase change is relative to the last chip transmitted.
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To transmit 11 Mbps 8 data bits is mapped into 8 CCK chipping bits. The unique 8 chipping bits is determined by the bit pattern of the 8 data bits to be transmitted. The data bit pattern is: b0, b1, b2, b3, b4, b5, b6 ,b7
b2, b3, b4 ,b5, b6 and b7 selects one unique pattern of the 8 bit CCK chipping code out of 64 possible sequences. b0 and b1 are used to select the phase rotation sequence.
DSSS Modulation
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Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK)

Previous carrier symbol
A Zero phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 0.
0 Phase Shift
A 180 degree phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 1.
180 degree Phase Shift

180 degree Phase Shift
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Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK)

Previous carrier symbol
A Zero phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 00. A 90 degree phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 01. A 180 degree phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 11. A 270 degree phase shift from the previous symbol is interpreted as a 10.
0 Phase Shift 90 Phase Shift 180 Phase Shift 270 Phase Shift
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DSSS Summary
Data Rate Encoding Modulation
1 2
Barker Coding 11 chips encoding 1 bit Barker Coding 11 chips encoding 1 bit
DBPSK DQPSK
5.5
11
CCK Coding
CCK Coding
8 chips encode 8 bits

8 chips encode 4 bits
DQPSK
DQPSK
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FHSS vs DSSS
DSSS is more susceptible to narrow band noise.

DSSS channel is 22 Mhz wide whereas FHSS is 79 Mhz wide. The FCC regulated that DSSS use a maximum of 1 watt of transmitter power in Pt-to-Multipoint system.
DSSS costs less then FHSS FHSS can have more systems co-located than DSSS. DSSS systems have the advantage in throughput The Wi-Fi alliance tests for DSSS compatibility No such testing alliance exists for FHSS.
FHSS vs DSSS contd
DSSS generally has a throughput of 5-6 Mbps while FHSS is generally between 1-2 Mbps. Both FHSS and DHSS are equally insecure. DSSS has gained much wider acceptance due to its low cost, high speed and interoperability. This market acceptance is expected to accelerate. FHSS advancement includes HomeRF and 802.15
(WPAN) (Bluetooth), however, it is expected to not advance into the enterprise.
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Co-location Comparison
54 Mbps OFDM
40
3 Mbps FHSS (sync.) 11 Mbps DSSS
Date Rate in Mbps
30
20
3 Mbps FHSS (no sync.)
10
1
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10
15
20
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Number of Co-located Systems
OFDM
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802.11a
IEEE 802.11a Standard.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
Operates in the 5.0 GHz band. It Operates in the Unlicensed National Information
Infrastructure (UNII).
200 channels ( channels 1-199) spaced 5 MHz apart. Supported data rates are 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54,
MBps.
6, 12, and 24 are mandatory. All others are optional. 75-80 Feet
64 users /Access Point

802.11a Network Channel Assignments

Area
USA
Frequency Band
U-NII Lower Band (5.150-5.250 Ghz)
Channel
36 40 44 48
Center Frequency
5.180 Ghz 5.200 Ghz 5.220 Ghz 5.240 Ghz
USA
U-NII Middle Band

(5.250 5.350 Ghz)
52
56 60 64
5.260 Ghz
5.260 Ghz 5.280 Ghz 5.320 Ghz 5.745 Gh 5.765 Ghz 5.785 Ghz 5.805 Ghz
USA
U-NII Upper Band (5.725 5.825)
149 153 157 161
NOTE: 1. U-NII : Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure. 2. 802.11a is specific to the US.
OFDM
A mathematical process that allows 52 channels to overlap without
losing their orthogonality (individuality).

48 sub-channel are used for data
Each sub-channel is used to transmit data

4 sub-channel are used as pilot carriers. The pilot sub-channels are used to monitor path shift and
shifts in sub-channel frequencies (Inter Carrier Interference (ICI)).

OFDM selects channels that
OFDM
overlap but do not interfere with one another.

Channels are separated
based upon orthogonality.

802.11a Channels
802.11a use the lower and middle UNII 5 GHz bands to create 8 channels. Each Channel is 20 MHz each. Each channel is broken into 52 sub-channels with each sub-channel 300 KHz each. 48 Sub-channels are used to transmit data 4 sub-channels are used as Pilot carriers to monitor the channel
52 Sub-Channels for each 8 channels
Each channel is 20 MHz wide
8 Channels
Lower and Middle UNII frequency band
Lower UNII Band

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Middle UNII Band

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OFDM Modulation
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Modulation Background
In order to properly understand OFDM modulation we need to do a quick review of various modulation techniques. James Clark Maxwell, 1864, first developed the idea that electromagnetic magnetic waves arose as a combination electric current and magnetic field an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz , in 1880s, developed the first Radio Frequency device that sent and received electromagnetic waves over the air The name Hertz (Hz) was given to the unit of frequency measurement representing one complete oscillation of an electromagnetic wave. This is also called cycle per second.
Kilohertz = thousands of cycles per second

Megahertz = millions of cycles per second Gigahertz = billions cycles per second
Modulation Background Contd

The oscillating electromagnetic wave, also called a sine wave, is shown below. This wave can be used as a carrier signal to carry information. The information can be imposed upon the carrier through a process called modulation which is accomplished by modifying one of three physical wave characteristic. These physical characteristics are: Amplitude The height of the wave Frequency the number of oscillation (cycles) per second. Phase the starting point of the wave (when compared to the starting point of the previous wave. The are two major types of modulation schemes: Analog and Digital
Sine Wave
Frequency
Phase
Amplitude
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Analog Modulation
Amplitude Modulation varies the height of the carrier wave.
Change in Amplitude
Frequency Modulation varies the number of oscillation (waves) per second
Phase Modulation changes the starting point of the wave.
Change in Frequency
Change in Phase February 2005
1 = 1800 Phase Change 0 = No Phase Change

51
Digital Modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) changes the amplitude of the carrier wave to represent a 0 or 1.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) changes the frequency of the carrier wave to represent a 0 or 1.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) changes the phase of the carrier wave to represent a 0 or 1. 1 = 1800 Phase Change 0 = No Phase Change
180 degree phase change February 2005 Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved 52
Phase Modulation Extended
Phase Modulation changes the starting point of the wave.
Change in Phase
1 = 1800 Phase Change 0 = No Phase Change

90
0
Phase shift can also be represented on an x/y axis constellation such that:
BPSK 1 0
0
o
1 = 1800 Phase Change ( radians) 0 = No Phase Change
180
In this instance we can transmit 1 bit for every phase shift.

This is called Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) in 802.11a
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1 = 1800 Phase Change ( radians) 0 = No Phase Change

270
0
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QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)
2 bits/phase
90 01
0
00 135
o
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) extends this technique to transmit two bits for every phase shift. 00 = 350 Phase Change 01 = 1350 Phase Change 11 = 2250 Phase Change 10 = 3150 Phase Change
35
QPSK
180
o
225 11
315
10
270
0
4 bits/phase
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) generalizes these techniques to encode information in both phase (by employing PSK techniques such as BPSK and QPSK) with amplitude. For example, in the diagram a right, each quadrature contains 4 amplitudes (16 levels) and can therefore transmit 4 bits per phase.
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90
0
QAM
0010 0001
0110 0111 0100

180
o
0101
0011 0000 o
0
1100 1101
1111 1110
270
1001 1010
0
1000 1011
54
QAM Extended
900
In the diagram at right, each quadrature contains 8 amplitudes (64 levels) and can therefore transmit 6 bits per phase.
180o
0o
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2700 Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved
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Summary of OFDM Encoding/Modulation
64 Phase shifts can encode 6 bits /phase shift resulting is a transmission rate of either 48 or 54 Mbps depending upon the number of sub-channels (R) used for error correction. Coding Rate (R) is the ratio of sub-channels carrying data to sub-channels carrying error correction code. E.G., 1/2 would indicate that 24 sub-channels (1/2 X 48 = 24) are being used for error correction while the remaining 24 sub-channels are used for data transmission. The Length of the each Symbol is equal to number of sub-carriers times the bits /transition. e.g., 48 X 6 = 288.
Summary of OFDM Encoding/Modulation
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End of Lecture
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Lecture 4 - Spread Spectrum Technologies

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Spread Spectrum Technologies

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Narrowband vs Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum (Low Peak Power)

Narrow Band vs Spread Spectrum

High peak power

The bandwidth is much wider than required to send to the signal.

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Spread Spectrum Use

Local Area Networks Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)

Wireless LAN Networks

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

FCC Radio Spectrum

2.9 GHz - 30 GHz 30 GHz and above

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

ISM Frequency Bands

S-Band ISM (802.11b)

2.4 - 2.5 Ghz

C-Band ISM (802.11a)

5.725 - 5.875 Ghz

ISM - Industrial, Scientific and Medical

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

2.401 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Elapsed Time in Milliseconds (ms) Channel 1

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Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

FHSS Contd Dwell Time

Shorter dwell time = less throughput

Is measured in microseconds (us) and is generally around 200-300 us.

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

compared to narrow band by spreading the signal.

FHSS and DSSS.

signal prior to transmission which spreads the signal across 22 Mhz.

signal is called Processing Gain .

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

higher data rate bit sequence (pseudorandom number (PN)).

resistance to interference by spreading it across a greater number of frequencies.

of chips in the chipping code equates to the signal spreading ratio.

Channel 1 = 2.401 2.423 (2.412 plus/minus 11 Mhz).

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

Copyright 2005 All Rights Reserved

DSSS Frequency Assignments

Channel 1 2.412 GHz

Channel 6 2.437 GHz

Channel 11 2.462 GHz

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DSSS Non-overlapping Channels

DSSS Encoding and Modulation

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DSSS Encoding and Modulation

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Barker Chipping Code

each 1 and 0 signal.

eleven bit Barker sequence.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Contd

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