AMMONIA PLANT DESIGN FOR 1 MTPA

(3030 MTPD)
A PRESENTATION ON
BHARAT INSTITUTE OF TECNOLOGY, MEERUT
CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT
BY:
PRATEEK MALL
TAUFEEQ AHMAD
MOHD. QASIM
INTRODUCTION
Ammonia one of the most important
basic chemical of the world.
Major supplier of the fertilizer nitrogen.
Other uses, in both organic and
inorganic chemical production.
Main function of ammonia is to supply
nitrogen in a reactive form.
Ammonia a precursor to foodstuffs and
fertilizers contributes to nutritional
needs.
Ammonia is both caustic as well as
hazardous.
METHODS OF AMMONIA
PRODUCTION
Habers Process
Cyanamide Process
Electrolysis Process
Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons
Adiabatic Pre-Reforming
Coal Gasification Process
1. Lurgi Process
2. Winkler Process
3. Koppers-Totsek
Steam Reforming
Linde Ammonia Concept

LINDE AMMONIA CONCEPT (LAC)
LAC is a novel breakthrough in the design philosophy
of ammonia plants.
GSFC ammonia-IV plant is first plant in the world
based on LAC.
Elimination of three catalytic process steps (i.e.
secondary reforming, HT shift conversion and
methanation).
Reducing the total catalyst volume to approx. 50% of
that in a conventional plant.


LAC ADVANTAGES
Provision of reformed gas purification system by pressure swing
adsorption which has a proven and unmatched reliability.
The generation of inert free synthesis gas, resulting in significant
savings in synthesis loop and eliminating a purge gas purification step.
Pure hydrogen and pure nitrogen are directly available from process
steams.
The simplified flow-sheet also result in a reduced start up time and
important saving in feed stock consumption.
An overall simplification of classical design, resulting in savings in
investment costs, construction time, and site area as well as catalyst
replacements costs.





LAC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
PLANT CAPACITY
Liquid NH3 3030 MTPD
NH
3
: 99.5% Wt. Min.
H
2
O: 0.5% Wt. Max.
Oil: 20 ppm Max.
Carbon Dioxide 3255 MTPD
CO
2
: 99 Mol %
H
2
: 0.8 Mol %
H
2
O: Saturated
Argon 18768 Nm
3
/ day
Argon: 99.99%
O
2
: 5 ppm Max
N
2
: 5 ppm Max.
LAC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
RAW MATERIAL
Natural Gas
Methane
84 to 90%
Ethane 5 to 8%
CO
2
1 to 5%
Propane 1 to 4%
i-Butane 0 to 0.2%
n-Butane 0 to 0.2%
i-Pentane 0 to 0.02%
n-Pentane 0 to 0.10%
Hydrogen Traces
Nitrogen 0.1 to 0.7%
Calorific Value
Gross : 9800 to 11000
Kcal/NM
3

Net : 8500 to 9000 Kcal/
NM
3

Density 0.88 to 0.90 g/ml
LAC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
CATALYSTS REQUIRED
Sr. No. CATALYST USED FOR- CATALYST USED-
1. Reformer
Top Bed
Bottom Bed

Potash
Ni-Cr
2. Shift Converter Copper
3. PSA adsorbers Mol sieves
4. Desulfuriser
Reactor R-0201 A
Reactor R-0201 B
ZnO
5. Ammonia Converter Fe-Based
6. Mol Sieve Adsorbers Mol Sieves
LAC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
UTILITIES
De-mineralized water :
pH : 8-9
Silica : <0.02 ppm
Chlorine : <0.01 ppm
Conductivity : 10 M-mho/ cm max

Steam:
High pressure (HP) steam : 110 bar g
Medium pressure (MP) steam : 38 bar g
Low pressure (LP) steam : 4.5 bar g

Air:
Dew point: <-80c

Electric Power:
11 KV - 3.3 KV - 440 V - 230 V



LAC PROCESS DESCRIPTION
HYDROGEN SECTION
STEAM REFORMER SECTION
Pressure reduction section 34 bar.
Preheating in Reformer convection
section to 385c.
Gas routed to desulfurizer.
Gas to steam ratio 3.
Further preheating to 550c.
This preheated reaction mixture is
distributed to the top of a Ni catalyst filled
reformer tubes in the reformer furnace.
Exit gas temprature 850 c.
Potash Catalyst and minimum steam level
maintained to avoid carbon formtion and
deposition.


REFORMER REACTION

CH
4
+ H
2
O CO +3H2
C
2
H
6
+ 2H
2
O 2 CO + 5H
2

C
3
H
8
+ 3H
2
O 3 CO + 7H
2

C
4
H
10
+ 4H
2
O 4 CO + 9H
2

CO + H
2O
CO
2
+ H
2


CARBON FORMATION

CH
4
C + 2H
2

2CO C + CO
2

CO + H
2
C + H
2
O
CO
2
+ 2H
2
C + 2H
2
O

C REMOVING REACTION

C + H
2
O CO
2
+ H
2







STEAM
NG
P
R
S

D
E
S
U
L
F
U
R
R
I
Z
E
R

REFORMER
FUEL
P
R
E
H
E
A
T
E
R

P
R
E
H
E
A
T
E
R

DESULFURIZATION SECTION
DESULFURIZATION REACTION

ZnO + H
2
S = ZnS + H
2
O
(Exothermic)







CO REMOVAL REACTION

CO + H
2
O = CO
2
+H
2








Preheated NG enters DS reactors where H
2
S is
chemically adsorbed in a bed of ZnO catalyst.
ZnO bed gives outlet sulfur up to <0.1 ppm. Bed
is spent when slip increases to 0.2 ppm. It
cannot be regenerated and has to be replaced.
Temprature 350 c - 450 c for efficient bed
utilization.


CO SHIFT CONVERSION SECTION
CO reformed gas contains 14 mol% CO on dry
basis.
Yield of H
2
is increased by reaction of CO with
excess steam present in gas
Maximum conversion is obtained by removing
the reaction heat through coils in the catalyst
bed, which keeps catalyst at 245c throughout.
CO content of gas is reduced to 0.7%.


CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL SECTION
CO
2
is removed by absorption in Methyl Di
Ethanol Amine (MDEA).
The MDEA concentration is about 37 wt%.
Additionally, the scrubbing solution also contains
3 wt% piperazine to improve CO
2
mass transfer.
The CO
2
removal from process gas takes place
at pressure of 25 bar and an inlet temperature of
70c.
Content of CO
2
reduced to less than 0.3 mol%.
In the lower part of the absorber bulk CO
2
of the
process gas is removed by semi-lean MDEA
solvent.
The remaining CO
2
is removed in the upper
section.
Mass transfer in absorber andstripper is improved
by packing.







CO
2
ABSORPTION

R
3
N + H
2
O + CO
2
= R
3
NH +
HCO
3


R
2
NH + CO
2
= R
2
NH
2
+ R
2
N
COO








PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION
Gas mixture is fed to adsorber at ambient temperature and increased pressure.
PSA process works between two pressure levels: (1) Adsorption & (2)
Regeneration.
In adsorption phase, adsorption of impurities is carried out at high pressure to
loading of impurities on adsorbent.
Raw feed gas flows in upward direction and impurities are selectively
adsorbed on surface of adsorbent in order- water, hydrocarbons, CO
and N
2
from bottom to top.
In the regeneration phase, the process is carried out at low pressure at
approximately the same temperature and impurities are desorbed.


ADSORPTION MATERIAL EFFECT OF GAS SEPARATION BASED
ON
ACTIVATED CARBON
SILICA GEL
ACTIVATED ALUMINA (ALUMINIUM
OXIDES)
BINDING FORCE (INDICATED BY BOILING
POINTS AND POLARITY)
ZEOLITES
ZEOLITIC MOLECULAR SIEVES
DIAMETER OF MOLECULES, BINDING
FORCES (ESP. POLARITY)
CARBONESEOUS MOLECULAR SIEVES DIFFERENT ADSORPTION VELOCITY
NITROGEN SECTION
AIR SEPARATION SECTION
Air separation plant based on low temperature process, using molecular sieve
absorber for cleaning the air before entering the low temperature section.
Process air is compressed to 5.2 bar by means of the process air compressor
Cooling of process air to +8
0
c takes place in the process air cooler.
Cooled process air passes through one of two molecular sieve absorbers,
where carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon and the remaining water vapor are
removed.
Process air separates into two parts. One part enters the cold box directly,
where it cools down to -173
0
c (nearly liquefaction) in the main heat exchanger.
The other parts of the process air warms up to +380
0
c and further compresses
in the air booster compressor to approximately 9.2 bar g.
Compressed air pre cools to approximately -103
0
c and expands in low pr
column 0.37 bar
Process air separates into oxygen enriched liquid at the bottom and a pure
nitrogen product of the top.
Nitrogen top gas condensed to obtain pure hydogen
AMMONIA SYNTHESIS SECTION
AMMONIA CONVERTOR
99.99% pure H
2
from PSA unit and 99.99% pure N
2

from ASU unit are mixed in 3:1 ratio at 23.50 Brag.
Synthesis gas compressed to 135 Brag in first 3
stages of synthesis gas compressor.
Synthesis gas further compressed to 143 Brag
pressure in four stage centrifuge compressor is
driven by high pressure steam turbine.
Synthesis gas is preheated in hot exchanger and is
routed to ammonia synthesis converter at 185
0
c .
Synthesis of ammonia from gaseous hydrogen and
nitrogen is an exothermic reaction.
Converter has three catalyst beds of the axial /
radial type with intermediate cooling by heat
exchanger.
After conversion to ammonia, heat recovery is
done at various stages, final temperature of
ammonia is -2.8c



AMMONIA SYN REACTION

N
2
+ 3H
2
2NH
3

H
298
= -52.1 KJ / mol









EQUIPMENT DESIGN
EQUIPMENTS DESIGNED
CARBON DIOXIDE ABSORPTION
COLUMN
MDEA STORAGE TANK
MDEA PUMP

ABSORPTION COLUMN DESIGN
DATA:
C0
2
Flowrate

= 114629.68 kg/hr
Total Flowrate = 27894.38 kg/h
w/w % of C0
2
in Gas=41.1%
Total Pressure = 18754.7 mm of Hg
Partial Pressure of CO
2
in feed = 41/100 *18754.7
= 7708.18 mm of Hg
Henrys Constant H
CO2
=6303.85 kPa/mol fraction
At 1 w/w% PP of CO2
P
A
= O.O1*6303.85
= 63.0385 hPa
Total Pressure =2500 kPa
Partial Pressure of CO2 in the feed =41/100*2500
=1027.5 kPa
Partial Pressure of exit gas at 99% = 10.275 kPa

SLOPE OF EQUILIBRIUM LINE
Mol fraction in vapour = 63.0385/2500
= 0.0252



Mol fraction in liquid =( 1/44)/((1/44+99/58.4))
= 0.0252/0.01323
= 1.905
Y
1
/Y
2
= P
1
/P
2
= 1027.5/10.275 = 100



G
Y1
+ L
X2
= L
y1 +
G
Y2


G(
Y1-Y2
) = L
X1

L
M
X
1
= G(
Y1+Y2
)
X
1
= G
M
/L
M
* (Y
1
-Y
2
)
= M G
M
/L
M
*1.905 . (0.40689)
X
1
= 0.21367*MG
M
/L
M

FOR MG
M/L
M

= 0.5
X
1
= 0.106835
AT 0.6
X
1
= 0.128202
AT 0.7
X
1
= 0.149563
AT 0.8
X
1
= 0.170936
N
OG
= 12


G
M
/L
M
0 .5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
N
OG
7.5 10.4 11.1 15.1 23.1 28
COLUMN DIAMETER

Gas flow rate = 5.9105 kmol/g
Liquid flow rate = 16.085 kmol/g

Select 30 mm intalox saddies(ceramic)
F
P
(Packing Factor)= 170 m
-1

Gas density = 26.828 kg/m
2

Liquid density

= 1040 kg/m
3

Liquid viscosity = 6.566*10
-3

F
LV
= L
W
/V
W
(
V
/
L
)
.5

=( 16.085/5.9105)(26.828/1040)
.5


= 0.4371
Density for 20 mm H
2
O/m packing
K
4
= 0.5
At flooding k
4
= 1.3
Percentage flooding = (0.5/1.3)
.5
*100
= 62.017 %
V
w
= ((k
4
*
v
(
L
-
V
)/(13.1*FP(
L/

L
)
.1
)
.5



= 14.219 Kg/m
2
s
Column area req. = 77.4789/14.219
= 5.45 m
2




Dimeter = (4/*5.45)
Diameter = 2.63 m = 2.7 m
Column area = /4*3
2

= 5.725 m
2

ESTIMATION OF H
OG
CORNELLS METHOD

D
CO2
=10*10
-9
m
2
/s
D
MDEA
= 2.4*10
-9
m
2
/s

CO2
= 1.714*10
-5
Pas

MDEA
= 6.566*10
-3

(SC)
L
=
L
/
L
D
L
= (1.714*10-3)/(26.828*10*10
-9
)
= 2630.60
(S
C
)
V
= V/
V
D
V
= (1.714*10
-5
/26.828*10*10
-9
)
= 63.88
L
W
* = (16.085*58.4/5.7255)
= 164.07 Kg/sm
2

At 60 % flooding , k
3
= 0.85
At 60 % flooding ,
h
= 80
At L
W
* = 164.07 ,
h
= 0.05
F
1
= F
2
= F
3
= 1

H
L
= 0.305
h
(S
C
)
L
.5
K
3
(2/3.05)
.15

Z = 12
H
L
= (0.035*0.05*(2630.6)
0.5
*0.85(12/3.05)
.15
)
H
L
= 0.8165
H
G
=( 0.011
h
(S
C
)
V
.5
(D
C
/0.305)1.11(2/3.05)
.33
/(L
W
F
1
F
2
F
3
)
.5
)
= (0.011*80*7.9929*11.2523*1.57)
= 0.786
H
OG
= H
G
+ mG
m
/L
m
*H
L

= (0.786 + 0.7*0.8165)
H
OG
= 1.357
Z = 12*1.357
= 16.3 m


STORAGE TANK DESIGN FOR 10000t AMMONIA AT ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

Volume Required = Weight in kg * Density
= 10000*10^3*682
= 14662.75 m
3

Selection of Diameter and Height Using IS Code 803


AMMONIA STORAGE TANK DESIGN
Storage Tank Shell Design

P = ( H 0.3) * 9.807*10
-6

t = PD
O
/(2FJ + P)
Where ,
P = Static head of liquid kg/cm
3

D = Diameter of tank , m
t = shell thickness, m
f = Permissible stress, kg/cm
2

J = Welded joint efficiency
H = Hight of tank m
= Density of liquid , kg/cm
2


Shell Thickness at Various Heights
Taking H =22 m
P
1
= 0.14514*10
6

t = 21.70 mm

Taking H = 20 m
P
2
= 0.1318*10
6
N/m
2

t
2
= 19.69 mm

Taking H = 18 m
P
3
= 0.1184*10
6
N/m
2

t
3
= 17.69 mm

Taking H = 16 m
P
4
= 0.1050*10
6
N/m
2

t
4
= 15.69 mm

Taking H = 14 mm
P
5
= 0.0916*10
6
N/m
2

t
5
= 13.69 mm

Taking H = 12 m
P
6
= 0.0782*10
6
N/m
2

t
6
= 11.69 mm

Taking H = 10 m
P
7
= 0.0649*10
6
N/m
2

t
7
= 9.70 mm


Design of wind girders, Z
Z = 0.058D
2
H
= 0.058*(30)
2
*22
= 1148.4 m
3


Width of wind girder
= 2*16*t
= 2*16*10
= 320 mm

Desing for tank roof
Slecting self suppoting cone roof
= 37
0

t = D/5sin
t = 9.97 mm


MDEA Flow rate(Q) = 0.96323 m
3
/s
Assume,
Pump Efficiency = 85%
Pipe Length = 100 m
Pipe Diameter = 1 m



Where, u = velocity of fluid at outlet (m/s)
u = 4.6024 m/s
Calculation of Reynolds Number


Re = 1.8 * 10
5
(of the order 10
5
)
Loss of Head due to friction in pipe


Where,
f = Friction Factor
(hfs hfd) = 3.24 m
.





MDEA PUMP DESIGN
Manometric Head ( Hm) = 17 + (hfs hfd)

Hm 20.24 m

Power of the Pump is give by,


P= 298.235 HP









PLANT ECONOMICS
COST ESTIMATION AND
PROFITABILITY
Basis: 330 days of Production per Year

PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST = Main Equipment + Auxiliary Equipment Cost


Equipment Quantity Total cost (Crore Rs.)
Reformer 1 105.58
Desulfurizers 2 4.87
ISR 1 12.99
CO2 Removal section 1 32.5
PSA 12 113.7
ASU 1 9.76
Cold Box 1 69.85
Heat Exchangers 25 105.58
Pumps 20 24.36
Compressors 12 27.61
Vessels 3 4.87
Total 511.67
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital Investment

FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT = (Direct cost + Indirect cost)



Direct Cost
Sr No. Type Of Cost % Of Equipment Cost
Cost (Rs. In
Crores)
1 Equipment ---- 511.67
2 Installation 15 76.75
3 Instrumentation 20 102.33
4 Piping 35 179.08
5 Building 15 76.75
6 Yard Improvement 4 20.47
7 Service 22 112.57
8 Land 4 20.47
Total 1100.091
Indirect Cost
Sr. No. Item % Of Equipment Cost Cost (Rs. In Crores)
1. Engg.& Supervision 15 76.75
2.
Construction, Expansion
& Contractors Fee
16 81.87
3. Contegencies 6 30.70
Total 189.32 crores
TOTAL FIXED CAPITAL = (DIRECT + INDIRECT) CAPITAL = 1289.411 CRORES

INITIAL WORKING COST = 15% OF TOTAL INITIAL COST

F.C.I.(X)= 1289.411 + 0.15 * X
X = 1516.954 CRORES

FIX CAPITAL INVESTMENT= A + B = Rs. 1516.954 crores/-

WORKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT

Total capital Investment= Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital
TCI= 1516.954 + 0.15 TCI
TCI= 1784.652 crore Rs.

Working Capital Investment = 15% Of Total capital Investment
= 267.697 crores




TOTAL PRODUCTION COST
Total production Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses
Manufacturing Cost = Direct Production Cost + Fixed Charges + Plant Overhead
Costs


Direct Production Cost
Raw Materials Annual
Requirement(m
3
)
Specific Cost Cost (Crore Rs.)
Natural Gas 4.71*10
8
3.25 Rs/Nm
3
153.09
Direct Production Cost
Utilities Annual
Requirement
Specific Cost Cost (Crore Rs.)
Water (m
3
) 5.46*10
6
3.5 Rs/m
3
1.9102
Electricity (KWH) 2.41*10
8
2.25/ KWH 54.252
Total 56.1622
Direct Production Cost
Particulars Basis Cost (Crore Rs.)
Maintenance & Repairs 5 % of FCI 75.85
Operating Supplies 0.012 % of FCI 0.1820
Operating Labour (OL) 10 % of TPC 0.1X
Laboratory Charges 10 % of OL 0.010X
Patents and Royalties 1 % of TPC 0.01X
Total 76.032 + 0.120X
Where, X = Total Production Cost
Fixed Charges
Particulars Basis Cost (Crore Rs.)
Depreciation ---- 63.65
Interest 10 % of TCI 178.465
Local Taxes 4 % of FCI 60.678
Insurance 1 % of FCI 15.169
Total 317.98
F.C.I. = Rs. 1516.954 Crores
Salvage Value = Rs. 244 Crores
Life Of plant = 20 Years

BY STRAIGHT-LINE METHOD,

Depreciation = Initial investment Salvage Value / Life Of Plant
= (1516.954 244) / 20 = Rs. 63.65 Crores per annum


Manufacturing Cost = Direct Production Cost + Fixed Charges
= 153.09 + 56.1622 + 76.032 + 0.120 X + 317.98
= 603.2642 + 0.120 X



General Expenses
Particulars Basis Cost (Crore Rs.)
Administrative Costs 15 % of OL 0.015 X
Distribution & Marketing Costs 12 % of TPC 0.12 X
R & D 4 % of TPC 0.04 X
Total 0.175 X
Total Production Cost= Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses
X= 603.2642 + 0.120 X + 0.175 X

Total Production Cost= 855.694 Crore Rs/yr.

Manufacturing Cost = 705.95 crores




INCOME DUE TO AMMONIA SALE
Sales Price = Rs 18500/ MT
Daily Production = 3030 MT/Day
Working Days = 330 Days
Annual Income from ammonia =3030 * 18500 * 330
= 1849.815 crores

INCOME DUE TO ARGON SALES
Sales Price = Rs 30/Nm3
Daily Production = 18768.2 Nm3/Day
Working Days = 330 Days
Annual Income from Argon = 30 * 18768.2 * 330
= 18.581 crores

TOTAL ANNUAL INCOME = 1868.396 Crore Rs/yr.



Gross Annual Earning = Total Sales Earning Total Production Cost
= 1012.702 Crores

Taxable Income = Gross Profit - Depreciation
= 949.052 Crore Rs

Income Tax= 30 % of Gross Annual Earning
= 284.716 Crore Rs/yr

Surcharge = 3 % of Income Tax
= 8.5415 Crore Rs/yr.

Net Annual Earning = Gross Annual Earning Income Tax Surcharge
De
= 655.7925 Crore Rs/yr.


Now,
Gross Profit Margin = [Gross Profit / Annual income] * 100
= 50.79 %

Rate Of Return = (Net Profit / T.C.I.) * 100
= 36.75 %

Pay Back Period = F.C.I. / Net Profit
= 2.32 Years

BREAK EVEN POINT (Z)

Total Product Cost Rs/yr = (Selling Price Rs/MT)*(Breakeven Point MT/day)
*(Total Days of Production)

n = 1401.63 MT/day

Actual Rate of Production = 3030 MT/day

Breakeven Point = 46.26 % of Total Capacity


HAZARDS AND SAFETY
Ammonia (Gas)

Toxic effects: The gas irritates all the parts of the respiratory system.
Hazardous reaction: Forms explosive mixture with air, violent reactions with
Boron, Halides.

Hydrogen

Toxic effects: Classed as a simple asphyxiate gas.
Hazardous reaction: Reaction hazards with oxidants such as chloride dioxide,
copper oxide

N-Methyl Di Ethanol Amine

Toxic effects: The vapor irritates the eyes and respiratory system.
Hazardous reaction: Forms explosive mixture with air, violent reactions with
Boron, Halides.


HAZARD
HAZARDS AND SAFETY
Basic Safety Rules:
There are few basic safety rules
which must be observed when
working in ammonia manufacturing
area:
No smoking
No drinking except water
foundations
Do not tamper with faulty
equipments or electrical fittings
Wear all personal protective
equipments provided
Personal Protective Clothing and
Equipments:
A wide range of clothing and
equipments for personal protective in
a variety of materials are available,
among of which are found suitable to
task should be used:


SAFETY
Sr.
No.
Personal Protective
Device
For Protection against
1. Safety hats Chemical splashes working with
overhead pipes, tanks, heat exchangers,
etc.
2. Dust masks Inhalation of harmful dusts
3. Air masks Inhalation of smoke, harmful gases
4. Safety footwear Corrosive chemicals, falling objects
5. Eye protector Chemical splashes or sparks
6. Gloves Abrasion, corrosive & poisonous
chemicals
7. Safety units Any kind of accidents
8. Barrier creams Dermatitis or skin infection
REFERENCES
Robert, H. Perry & Cecil, H. Chilton, Chemical Engineers Handbook, 5
th
Edition,
McGraw-Hill Company.
R K Sinnott, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering Design, Volume 6, 4
th

Edition, Elsevier.
M V Joshi, V V Mahajani & S B Umarji, Joshis Process Equipment Design, 4th
Edition , McGraw-Hill Company.
B.I. Bhatt & S.M. Vora, Stoichiometry, 3
rd
edition, McGraw-Hill Company.
M.V. Joshi & V.V. Mahajani, Process Equipment Design, 3
rd
Edition, MACMILLAN-
2004.
Peters Max S. & Timmerhaus Klaus, Plant Design & Economics for Chemical
Engineers, 3
rd
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications
Octave Levenspiel, Chemical Reaction Engineering, 3
rd
Edition, John Willey &
Sons.
Wikipedia