Module -III

System And Data Analysis

(Data Analyzing Modeling)

Topics
Determining System Requirements (Traditional Methods, Modern & Radical Methods) Structuring System Requirements
Process Modeling DFD Logic Modeling Structured English & Decision Tables Conceptual Modeling ER Model

Data Analysis & Techniques (Interpretive, Recursive Abstraction and Mechanical Technique),

Coding,

Types of Analysis (Descriptive, Exploratory, Confirmatory and Predictive)

Modeling Methodologies (Bottom Up method & Top Down Method)

Generic and Schematic Data Modeling
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Determining System Requirements

In this Analyst gather information on what the system should do from many sources as possible. Such sources include user of the current system, reports, forms, and procedures. All of the system requirements are carefully documented and made during requirements determination and ordering them into tables, diagrams, and other formats that make them easier to translate into technical system specification. The characteristics you need to enjoy solving the mysteries and puzzles are the same one you need to be a good system analyst during requirement determination.
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1. Traditional Method: Interviews, Questionnaire, Direct Observation. 2. Modern Method: JAD, Prototyping

Methods of Collecting Requirement

3. Radical Method: Reengineering.

Business

Process
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Requirements Structuring
Two essential views of the current and replacement information systems. Both are describing the same system, but in a different way.
Process view: The sequence of data movement & handling operations within the system
Data flow diagrams

Data: The inherent structure of data independent of how or when it is processed

Entity-relation diagrams
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Remember to...

Traditional Methods for Determination Requirements

Collection of information is at the core of systems analysis. Collect the information about the information system that are currently in use. To find out how users would like to improve the current systems and organizational operations with new or replacement information system. Best way to get the information is :
Talk to the person who are directly or indirectly involved in different part of the organizations. Gather the copies of relevant document required by current systems and business processes Interviews and direct observation

Traditional Methods for Determination Requirements

Administering questionnaires Interviewing and listening Interviewing groups Directly observing users Analyzing procedures & other documents
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Administering Questionnaires Advantages & Disadvantages

Strengths
1. 2. 3.

Weaknesses
1. 2. 3.

Give Me Ambiguity or Give Me Something Else!

How often do computer files?
A. B. C. D. Frequently Sometimes Hardly at all Never
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you

back

up

your

This is better
How often do you back up the computer files stored on the hard disk on the PC you use for over 50% of your work time?
A. Frequently (at least once per week) B. Sometimes (from 1 to 3 times per month) C. Hardly at all (once per month or less) D. Never

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Interviewing and listening

Interviewing is one of the primary ways analysts gather information about an information systems project. Analyst may spend a large amount of time interviewing people about their work, the information they use to do it. It is used to understand organizational direction, policies, and expectations that managers have on the units they supervise. During interview you gather facts, opinions and speculation and observe body language, emotions and other signs of what people want and how they access current system.
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Guidelines of effective interviewing

Guidelines

Plan the Interview

Prepare interviewee by making and appointment and explaining the purpose of the interview. Prepare a checklist, an agenda, and questions Avoid asking leading questions.

What is Involved

Be neutral

Give your undivided attention to the interviewee and take notes or tape-record Listen and take notes the interview (if permission is granted).

Review Notes
Seek Diverse views

Review your notes within 48 hours of the meeting. If you discover follow-up questions or need additional information, contact the interviewee Interview a wide range of people, including potential users and managers. 13

Interviewing & Listening

Before During the interview Afterwards

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During the Interview

Beginning
Middle End
Introduction, open-ended questions, interest & attention Open & close-ended questions, f-u questions, active listening, provide feedback, limit note-taking

Summarize, request feedback and/or f-u, ask for corrections

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Interviews Advantages & Disadvantages

Strengths
Extracts both qualitative and quantitative data Detailed and summary data Good way to find needs and assumptions

Weaknesses
Requires skills May be biased; May collect lots of useless data Expensive, time consuming Requires other methods to verify results
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How do you choose interview questions?

Open-ended questions
1. 2. 3.

Closed-ended questions
1. 2. 3.

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Find out about someones job

3 closed Write 3 open-ended Write ended questions questions Ask 3 open-ended Ask 3 closed-ended questions (You may questions (You may substitute questions substitute questions during interview.) during interview.) Write down answers Write down answers
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Interviewing Groups Advantages & Disadvantages

Strengths
Not biased by one users opinion Can get many users opinion

Weaknesses
With many people present, decisionmaking takes time Interruptions during process

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Directly Observing Users

Another fact finding method used by the systems analyst is on-site or direct observation. The analysts role is that of an information seeker. Purpose of on-site observation is to get as close as possible to the real system being studied. The analyst observes the physical layout of the current system, the location and movement of people, and the work flow.
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Four Methods of Direct Observation

Natural or contrived: Obtrusive or unobtrusive: Direct or indirect: Structured or unstructured:

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 Natural or Contrived: A natural observation occurs in a settings such as the employees place of work; contrived observation is set up by the observer in a place like a laboratory. Obtrusive or Unobtrusive: An obtrusive observation takes place when the respondent knows he/she is being observed; an unobtrusive observation takes place in a contrived way such as behind a one-way mirror.

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 Direct or Indirect: A direct observation takes place when the analyst actually observes the subject or the system at work. In an indirect observation, the analyst uses mechanical devices such as cameras and videotapes to capture information. Structured or Unstructured: In structured observation, the observer looks for and records a specific action such as the number of soup cans a shopper picks before choosing one. Unstructured methods place the observer in a situation to observe whatever might be pertinent at the time.

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Disadvantage of Direct Observation

Intruding into users area often results in adverse reactions by the staff. Therefore, adequate preparation and training are important. Attitudes and motivations of subjects cannot be readily observed-only the actions that result from them. Observations are subject to error due to the observers misinterpretation and subjective selection of what to observe, as well as subject altered work pattern during observation. Unproductive, long hours are often spent in an attempt to observe specific, one time activities or 24 events.

You May Need to Analyze Work Procedures

Work procedures describe a particular job or task May show duplication of effort May find missing steps May contradict info collected from interviews, questionnaires, and observations Formal systems vs informal systems
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Modern Method
Joint Application Design Prototyping

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Radical Method
In Some Organizations, Management is looking for new ways to perform the current task. These may be radically different from how things are done now, but the payoffs may be enormous: Fewer people may be needed to do same work; relationship with customers may improved dramatically; and process become much more efficient and effective, all of which can result in increased profits. The overall process by which current methods are replaced with radically new methods is referred to as Business Process reengineering (BPR)

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BPR
(Business Process Reengineering)

What is BPR?
Business Process Reengineering is the analysis and design of workflows and processes within an organization. A business process is a set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined business outcome. Re-engineering is the basis for many recent developments in management. Business Process Reengineering (BPR) is basically the fundamental rethinking and radical re-design, made to an organizations existing resources. It is more than just business improvising.
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BPR
(Business Process Reengineering)
Search for and implementation of radical change in business processes to achieve breakthrough improvements in products and services

Goals
Reorganize complete flow of data in major sections of an organization

Eliminate unnecessary steps

Combine steps Become more responsive to future change
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BPR
(Business Process Reengineering)
Identification of processes to reengineer
Key business processes
Set of activities designed to produce specific output for a particular customer or market Focused on customers and outcome Same techniques are used as were used for requirements determination

Identify specific activities that can be improved through BPR Disruptive technologies

Technologies that enable the breaking of long-held business rules that inhibit organizations from making radical business changes.
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Structuring System Requirements

Process Modeling DFD (Data Flow Diagram)

Logical Modeling Structure English &

Decision Table

Conceptual Modeling ER Diagram

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Process Modeling
It involves graphical representing the process, or actions, that capture, manipulate, store and distribute data between a system

and its environment and among components

within a system. A common form of process modeling is DFD (Data Flow Diagram).

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DFD (Data Flow Diagram)

A data flow diagram is a graphic that illustrates the movement of data between external entities and the processes and data stores within a system.

It is a top-down approach, moves from general requirements to more specific requirements, illustrating process, movement, and storage of data in the system. It is a way to focus on functions rather than physical implementation.
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DFD
A process model used to depict the flow of data through a system and the work or processing performed by the system. Synonyms are Bubble chart, Transformation Graph, and Process Model. The DFD has also become a popular tool for business process redesign. It is developed by Larry Constantine as a way of expressing system requirements in a graphical form.
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DFD Symbols

A Square Define a source or destination of

system data.

An Arrow Identifies data flow data in motion.

It is a pipeline through which information flows.

A Circle Or Bubble A process that transforms

incoming data flow into outgoing data flow.

An open Rectangle It is a data store data at

rest, or a temporary repository of data.
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Or

= Source or Destination of data

Or

= Process that transform data flow

= Data store = Data Flow

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DFD Example

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DFD Example
System/Level 0 DFD External entity - Student

Processes
Registration

- Check available, Enrol student, Confirm

Data Flows - Application Form, Course Details, Course Enrolment Details, Student Details, Confirmation/Rejection Letter

Data Stores - Courses, Students.

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Logic Modeling
Although DFD are good for identifying the processes, they do not show the logic inside the processes. Even the processes of the primitive-level DFD do not show the most fundamental processing steps. Just what occurs with in a process? Logic modeling involves representing the internal structure and functionality of the process represented on DFD. Processes must be clearly described before they can be translated into a programming language.

Decision table is the common method for modeling system logic, that allow you to represent a set of conditions and the actions that follow from them in a tabular format. 39

Structure English
Structured English is the use of the English language with the syntax of structured programming. Thus structured English aims at getting the benefits of both the programming logic and natural language. Program logic helps to attain precision while natural language helps in getting the convenience of spoken languages. Structured English or "pseudocode" consists of the following elements:
Operation statements written as English phrases executed from the top down Conditional blocks indicated by keywords such as IF, THEN, and ELSE Repetition blocks indicated by keywords such as DO, WHILE, and UNTIL

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 Use the following guidelines when writing Structured English:

Examples of common keywords

Statements should be clear and unambiguous Use one line per logical element All logic should be expressed in operational, conditional, and repetition blocks Logical blocks should be indented to show relationship Keywords should be capitalized START, BEGIN, END, STOP, DO, WHILE, DO WHILE, FOR, UNTIL, DO UNTIL, REPEAT, END WHILE, END UNTIL, END REPEAT, IF THEN, IF, ELSE, IF ELSE, END IF, THEN, ELSE THEN, ELSE IF, SO, CASE, EQUAL, LT, LE, GT, GE, NOT, TRUE, FALSE, AND, OR, XOR, GET, WRITE, PUT, UPDATE, CLOSE, OPEN, CREATE, DELETE, EXIT, FILE, READ, EOF, EOT, WITH,RETURN
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Example of Structured English

A bank will grant loan under the following conditions
1. If a customer has an account with the bank and had no loan outstanding, loan will be granted.
2. If a customer has an account with the bank but some amount is outstanding from previous loans then loan will be granted if special approval is given. 3. Reject all loan applications in all other cases.
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Solution
IF customer has a Bank Account THEN IF Customer has no dues from previous account THEN

Allow loan facility

ELSE IF Management Approval is obtained THEN Allow loan facility ELSE Reject ENDIF

ENDIF
ELSE Reject ENDIF
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Decision Table
A decision table is a diagram of process logic where the logic is reasonably complicated. All depend on are represented tabular form. Decision tables have proven to be easier to understand and review than code, and have been used extensively and successfully to produce specifications of the possible choices and the conditions the choices

for complex systems.

In decision table the three parts to be include the condition stub, the action stub, and the rules.
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Example
A technical support company writes a decision table to diagnose printer problems based upon symptoms described to them over the phone from their clients.
Printer troubleshooter
Rules
Printer does not print A red light is flashing
Conditions

Y Y Y

Y Y N

Y N Y X

Y N N

N Y Y

N Y N

N N Y

N N N

Printer is unrecognised Check the power cable Check the printer-computer cable Ensure printer software is installed

X X

X X X X

Check/replace ink
Actions Check for paper jam

X
X X

X
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Conceptual Modeling
The Conceptual data modeling is a representation of organizational data. The purpose of a conceptual data model is to show as many rules about meaning and interrelationships among data as possible. Entity-relationship (E-R) data model are commonly used diagram that show how data are organized in an information system. The main goal of conceptual data modeling is to create accurate E-R Diagrams. As a system analyst you do conceptual data modeling at the same time as other requirements analysis and structuring steps during system analysis.
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E-R Diagram
An entity-relationship diagram is a data modeling technique that creates a graphical representation of the entities, and the relationships between entities, within an information system. Data Modeling Data modeling is the analysis of data objects that are used in a business or other context and the identification of the relationships among these data objects.
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Purpose Of ERD
Verify Accuracy and thoroughness of data design, current and new, with users.
Organize and record organizational data entities, relationships and scope through decomposition and layering. Enhance the overall communication between development project team members, system technicians, management and users with the use of graphic models. Generally simplify and bolster the creative data design process.
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Entity Sets
Database: collection of relationship among entities entities and

Entity: object that exists and distinguishable from other objects Entity set: collection of similar objects Attribute: property of an entity set
Each entity in the set has the same properties
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Attributes
Domain: set of permitted values for each attributes
Attribute types:
Simple vs. composite Single-valued v.s. multi-valued

Derived

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E/R Diagram
1. Entity sets: diagrams 2. Attributes: oval 3. Relationship sets between entity sets: diamond

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How to Represent E-R Diagram

E R ENTITY Relationship ENTITY

M O D E L

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Example E/R Diagram

Name Age Weight Breed Name

License #
Address Phone

Dog
Owns

Boards

Kennel
Pays

Owner
Name Phone

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The Three Main Components of ERD

Entity : The entity is a person, object, place or event for which data is collected.

Relationship : The relationship interaction between the entities.

is

the

Cardinality : The cardinality defines the relationship between the entities in terms of numbers.
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Mapping Cardinality
Number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a relationship set
The three main cardinal relationships are : One-one, expressed as 1:1 One-many, (Many-one) expressed as 1:M Many-many, expressed as M:N.

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Cardinality of Relationships

one-one

many-one

many-many

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Data Analysis
To analys the data we have four techniques Interpretive techniques : The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression. That is, expert examine the data, interpret it via forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and sometimes quantitative form. Coding : Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding requires the analyst to read the data and demarcate segments within it. Recursive abstraction : A recursive abstraction, where datasets are summarized, those summaries are then further summarized, and so on. Mechanical techniques :Some techniques rely on leveraging computers to scan and sort large sets of qualitative data. At their most basic level, mechanical techniques rely on counting words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data.

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Thank You

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Types of Analysis
Descriptive
Descriptive models quantify relationships in data in a way that is often used to classify customers or prospects into groups. Exploratory :Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is an approach to analysing data for the purpose of formulating hypotheses worth testing, complementing the tools of conventional statistics for testing hypotheses

Confirmatory Predictive : Predictive

models analyze past performance to assess how likely a customer is to exhibit a specific behavior in the future in order to improve marketing effectiveness. This category also encompasses models that seek out subtle data patterns to answer questions about customer performance, such as fraud detection models.
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 Confirmatory Analysis Inferential Statistics - Deductive Approach

Heavy reliance on probability models Must accept untestable assumptions Look for definite answers to specific questions Emphasis on numerical calculations Hypotheses determined at outset Hypothesis tests and formal confidence interval estimation

Advantages
Provide precise information in the right circumstances Well-established theory and methods

Disadvantages
Misleading impression of precision in less than ideal circumstances Analysis driven by preconceived ideas Difficult to notice unexpected results
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Exploratory Analysis Descriptive Statistics - Inductive Approach

Look for flexible ways to examine data without preconceptions Attempt to evaluate validity of assumptions Heavy reliance on graphical displays Let data suggest questions Focus on indications and approximate error magnitudes Flexible ways to generate hypotheses More realistic statements of accuracy Does not require more than data can support Promotes deeper understanding of processes
Statistical learning

Advantages

Disadvantages
Usually does not provide definitive answers Difficult to avoid optimistic bias produced by overfitting Requires judgement and artistry - can't be cookbooked

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