Human Factors & Motivation

Leading and Managing

Leading is the process of influencing people so that they will contribute to organizational and group goals. Managing requires the creation and maintenance of an environment in which individuals work together in groups toward the accomplishment of common objectives. Harmonizing Objectives: Individuals have personal goals that may be distinct from the goals of an organization. One of the important duties of the modern manager is to get things done through others in such a manner that the objectives of both groups are achieved.

Human Factors:

Multiplicity of Roles No average person Importance of Personal Dignity Consideration of the Whole Person

What is Motivation?

Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes, and similar forces.

Motivational Theories
McGregors Theory X & Theory Y Need Theories Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory Alderfers ERG Theory McClellands Needs Theory of Motivation Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory: Two Factor Theory Expectancy Theory of Motivation Equity Theory Goal Setting Theory Skinners Reinforcement Theory

McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X and Theory Y are two sets of assumptions about the nature of people. Example of Theory X Average human beings have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if they can. Example of Theory Y The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest.

Clarification of Theory X and Y

They are assumptions that need to be tested against reality They are intuitive deductions They are not on a continuous scale, not a matter of degree Theory Y is not consensus management nor an argument against use of authority Variety of tasks & situations require different approaches

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow saw human needs in a form of a hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest He concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Alderfer's ERG Theory

ERG theory has three categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. Alderfer stressed that when people experience frustration on one level, they may focus on the needs at a lower level need category.

McClelland's Needs Theory of Motivation

McClellands types of motivating needs are: Need for power (nPow): Degree of Control a person desires over his situation. This need can be related to how people deal with the fear of failure or losing success Need for affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Reason why telecommuting has not become as popular as predicted Need for achievement (nAch): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. High Achievement, sets more difficult goals,

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Dissatisfiers are not motivators. They are also called maintenance, hygiene factors. This includes salary, company policy and working conditions. Satisfiers are motivators and are related to job content. This includes achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement.

Comparison of Maslows and Herzbergs Theories of Motivation

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Vroom holds that people will be motivated to do things to reach a goal if they believe in the worth of that goal and if they can see that what they do will help them in achieving it. Force = Valence x Expectancy

Components of Expectancy Theory:

Force is the strength of a persons motivation Valence is the strength of an individuals preference for an outcome Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to a desired outcome The force exerted to do something will depend on both valence and expectancy.

Expectancy Theory Cont

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Think of these three components as three questions: If I do this, what will be the outcome? Is the outcome worth the effort to me? What are my chances of achieving an outcome that will be worthwhile for me?

Expectancy Theory Cont

Expectancy theory is more complicated as performance-outcome, valence and effortperformance expectancy are linked in a multiplicative chain. E.g. You are working on a project for which the outcome of your performance is clear, you know from experience the amount of effort required, but the outcome isnt worth very much to you. The valence is low. In such a situation, your behaviour might be to procrastinate until the last minute. E.g. Filing your Tax Returns, Submission of Assignments

Porter and Lawlers Expectancy Theory

An employee must want to perform; the desire of the employee to do the assigned jobs A person must have the necessary abilities and skills A person must have an accurate knowledge of the requirements of the job if he is expected to devote his energies fully on the assigned tasks

Porter and Lawlers Motivation Model

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7a 3 6 7b 5

Equity Theory

Equity theory refers to an individuals subjective judgment about the fairness of the reward he or she gets, relative to the inputs, in comparison with the rewards of others.
Outcomes by a person Outcomes by another person ---------------------------- = ---------------------------Inputs by a person Inputs by another person

Equity Theory

Equity Theory Cont

Studies have shown that an individuals reaction to an inequity is dependent on that persons history of inequity Richard Cosier & Dan Dalton point out that work relationships are not static and that inequities are not usually isolated or one-time events They suggest that there is a threshold up to which an individual will tolerate a series of unfair events, but that too many incidents can push him or her over the edge People use different methods to reduce inequity.

Lockes Goal Setting Theory

According to Edwin Locke, the natural human inclination to set and strive for goals is useful only if the individual both understands and accepts a particular goal For objectives to be meaningful, they must be clear, attainable and verifiable. Furthermore, workers will not be motivated if they do not possess and know they do not possess-the skills needed to achieve a goal Research show that when goals are specific and challenging, they function more effectively as motivating factors in both individual and group efforts. Also motivation and commitment are higher when employees participate in setting of goals

Objective Setting for Motivation

Skinners Reinforcement Theory

Positive reinforcement or behaviour modification:

Individuals can be motivated by proper design of their work environment and by praise for their performance and that punishment for poor performance produces negative results.

Skinners Reinforcement Theory

This theory shows how the consequences of past behaviour affect future actions in a cyclical learning process. This process may be expressed as follows: Stimulus Response Consequences Future Response The individuals own voluntary behaviour (response) to a situation or event (stimulus) is the cause of specific consequences. If these consequences are unpleasant, the individual will tend to change his or her behaviour in order to avoid them

Skinners Reinforcement Theory

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Behaviour Modification: Uses Reinforcement theory change human behaviour. Thus, a manager who wishes to change employee behaviour must change the consequences of that behaviour There are four common methods of behaviour modification: Positive Reinforcement: Desirable behaviour is encouraged Avoidance Learning: Employees change behaviour to avoid unpleasant consequences like criticism or poor evaluation

Special Motivational Techniques

Money whether in form of wages, bonus, stock options or any other form, is often the most important factor. Money is often more than monetary value. It can also mean status or power, or other things. Intrinsic rewards may include a feeling of accomplishment, or even self-actualization. Extrinsic rewards include benefits, recognition, status symbols, and, money.

Special Motivational Techniques cont.

Pay may be based on individual, group, and organizational performance. Participation is a form of recognition and gives people a sense of accomplishment. Quality of working life (QWL) usually involves a labour committee and QWL specialist or staff, which is charged with finding ways of enhancing dignity, attractiveness, and productivity of jobs through job enrichment and redesign.

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is an attempt to motivate employees by giving them the opportunity to use the range of their abilities. It is an idea that was developed by Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s. It can be contrasted to job enlargement which simply increases the number of tasks by adding similar tasks without enhancing the responsibility.

Ways to Job enrichment

Giving more freedom in deciding work methods, sequence, etc. Encouraging participation of subordinates Giving workers a feeling of personal responsibility Make sure that workers can see how their tasks contribute to the finished product Feedback on their job performance Involving workers in the analysis and change of physical aspects of the work environment

Limitations of Job enrichment

Technology: With specialized machinery and assembly line techniques it may not be possible to make all the jobs meaningful There is also a question as to whether or not workers really want job enrichment Limitations mainly apply to low-skill jobs

Making Job Enrichment Effective

Better understanding of people want If productivity is the main goal of enrichment, the program must show how workers will benefit People like to be involved, to be consulted, and to be given an opportunity to offer suggestions People like to feel their managers are truly concerned with their welfare