Monday, Oct.

2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006

Jae Yu
1
PHYS 3446 Lecture #8
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006
Dr. Jae Yu
1. Nuclear Models
Shell Model
Collective Model
Super-deformed Nuclei
2. Nuclear Radiation
Alpha decay
Beta decay
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
2
Announcements
First term exam
Date and time: 1:00 2:30pm, THIS Wednesday, Oct. 4
Location: SH105
Covers: Appendix A (special relativity) + CH1 CH3
Workshop was very successful
Weve all learned tremendously
We know what we want to do at the next workshop
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
3
Exploit the success of atomic model
Uses orbital structure of nucleons
Electron energy levels are quantized
Limited number of electrons in each level based on
available spin and angular momentum configurations
For n
th
energy level, l angular momentum (l<n), one expects a
total of 2(2l+1) possible degenerate states for electrons
Nuclear Models: Shell Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
4
Orbits and energy levels an electron can occupy are labeled by
Principle quantum number: n
n can only be integer
For given n, energy degenerate orbital angular momentum: l
The values are given from 0 to n 1 for each n
For any given orbital angular momentum, there are (2l+1) sub-states:
m
l
m
l
=-l, -l+1, , 0, 1, , l l, l
Due to rotational symmetry of the Coulomb potential, all these sub-states are
degenerate in energy
Since electrons are fermions w/ intrinsic spin angular momentum ,
Each of the sub-states can be occupied by two electrons
So the total number of state is 2(2l+1)
Atomic Shell Model Reminder
2
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
5
Exploit the success of atomic model
Uses orbital structure of nucleons
Electron energy levels are quantized
Limited number of electrons in each level based on
available spin and angular momentum configurations
For n
th
energy level, l angular momentum (l<n), one expects a
total of 2(2l+1) possible degenerate states for electrons
Quantum numbers of individual nucleons are taken
into account to affect the fine structure of spectra
Nuclear Models: Shell Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
6
Nuclei have magic numbers just like inert atoms
Atoms: Z=2, 10, 18, 36, 54
Nuclei: N=2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 and Z=2, 8, 20, 28,
50, and 82
Magic Nuclei: Nuclei with either N or Z a magic number
Stable
Doubly magic nuclei: Nuclei with both N and Z magic
numbers Particularly stable
Explains well the stability of nucleus
Nuclear Models: Shell Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
7
To solve equation of motion in quantum mechanics,
Schrdinger equation, one must know the shape of
the potential

Details of nuclear potential not well known
A few shapes of potential energies tried out
Infinite square well: Each shell can contain up to 2(2l+1)
nucleons
Shell Model: Various Potential Shapes
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
m
E V r r
| |
V + =
|
\ .
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
8
Nuclear Models: Shell Model Square
well potential case
N
M
n l=n-1 N
s
=2(2l+1)

N
T
2 1 0 2 2
8 2 0,1 2+6 8
20 3 0,1,2 2+6+10 18
28 4 0,1,2,3 2+6+10+14 32
50 5 0,1,2,3,4 2+6+10+14+18 50
82 6 0,1,2,3,4,5 2+6+10+14+18+22 72
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
9
To solve equation of motion in quantum mechanics,
Schrdinger equation, one must know the shape of
the potential

Details of nuclear potential not well known
A few models of potential tried out
Infinite square well: Each shell can contain up to 2(2l+1)
nucleons
Can predict 2, 8 and 50 but no other magic numbers
Three dimensional harmonic oscillator:
Predicts 2, 8, 20, 40 and 70 Some magic numbers predicted
Shell Model: Various Potential Shapes
( )
V r =
2 2
1
2
m r =
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
m
E V r r
| |
V + =
|
\ .
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
10
Central potential could not
reproduce all magic numbers
In 1940, Mayer and Jesen
proposed a central potential +
strong spin-orbit interaction w/


f(r) is an arbitrary empirical
function of radial coordinates and
chosen to fit the data
The spin-orbit interaction with
the properly chosen f(r), a finite
square well can split
Reproduces all the desired
magic numbers
Shell Model: Spin-Orbit Potential
TOT
V =
Spectroscopic notation: n L j
Orbit number
Orbital angular
momentum Projection of
total momentum
( )
V r ( )
f r L S
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
11
Spin-Parity of large number of odd-A nuclei predicted
well
Nucleons are Fermions so the obey Pauli exclusion principle
Fill up ground state energy levels in pairs
Ground state of all even-even nuclei have zero total angular
momentum
The shell model cannot predict stable odd-odd nuclei
spins
No prescription for how to combine the unpaired proton and
neutron spins
Predictions of the Shell Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
12
Magnetic Moment of neutron and proton are

Intrinsic magnetic moment of unpaired nucleons contribute to
total magnetic moment of nuclei
What does a deuteron consist of?

Measured value is
For Boron (
10
B
5
) , the 5 neutrons and 5 protons have the same level
structure: (1S
1/2
)
2
(1P
3/2
)
3
, leaving one of each unpaired proton and
neutron in angular momentum l=1 state

Measured value is
Does not work well with heavy nuclei
Predictions of the Shell Model
D
=
2.79
p N
~ 1.91
n N
~
D
=
B
=
1.80
B N
=
=
2.79 1.91
N N N
+ =
p
+ 2.79
N
1.91
N
= 0.88
N

n
=
0.86
N

2
N
e
l
m c
= N

1
2
N
e
m c
=
p n
+ +
orbit
=
1.88
N

Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006

Jae Yu
13
For heavy nuclei, shell model predictions do not agree
with experimental measurements
Especially in magnetic dipole moments
Measured values of quadrupole moments for closed
shells differ significantly with experiments
Some nucleis large quadrupole moments suggests
significant nonspherical shapes
The assumption of rotational symmetry in shell model does
not seem quite right
These deficiencies are somewhat covered through the
reconciliation of liquid drop model with Shell model
Bohr, Mottelson and Rainwaters collective model, 1953
Collective Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
14
Assumption
Nucleus consists of hard core of nucleons in filled shells
Outer valence nucleons behave like the surface molecules in a liquid drop
Non-sphericity of the central core caused by the surface motion of the
valence nucleon
Thus, in collective model, the potential is a shell model with a
spherically asymmetric potential
Aspherical nuclei can produce additional energy levels upon rotation while
spherical ones cannot
Important predictions of collective model:
Existence of rotational and vibrational energy levels in nuclei
Accommodate decrease of spacing between first excite state and the
ground level for even-even nuclei as A increases, since moment of inertia
increases with A
Spacing is largest for closed shell nuclei, since they tend to be spherical
Collective Model
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
15
Nuclei tend to have relatively small intrinsic spins
Particularly stable nuclei predicted for A between 150 and 190
with spheroidal character
Semi-major axis about a factor of 2 larger than semi-minor
Heavy ion collisions in late 1980s produced super-deformed
nuclei with angular momentum of
The energy level spacings of these observed through photon
radiation seem to be fixed
Different nuclei seem to have identical emissions as they spin
down
Problem with collective model and understanding of strong
pairing of nucleon binding energy
Understanding nuclear structure still in progress
Super-deformed Nuclei
60
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
16
Represents the disintegration of a parent nucleus to a
daughter through an emission of a He nucleus
Reaction equation is

o-decay is a spontaneous fission of the parent nucleus
into two daughters of highly asymmetric masses
Assuming parent at rest, from the energy conservation

Can be re-organized as
Nuclear Radiation: Alpha Decay
A Z
X
2
P
M c =
D
T T
o
+ =
4 2 A Z
Y

+
4 2
He
2
D D
M c T + +
2
M c T
o o
+
( )
2
P D
M M M c
o
=
2
Mc A
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
17
Since electron masses cancel, we could use atomic
mass expression

This is the definition of the disintegration energy or Q-
value
Difference of rest masses of the initial and final states
Q value is equal to the sum of the final state kinetic energies
Energy lost during the disintegration process
For non-relativistic particles, KE are
Nuclear Radiation: Alpha Decay
2
1
2
D D D
T M v =
D
T T
o
+ =
2
1
2
T M v
o o o
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
, 4, 2 4, 2 M A Z M A Z M c
Q
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
18
Since the parent is at rest, from the momentum
conservation

If , then
We can write the relationship of KE and Q-value as




This means that T
o
is unique for the given nuclei
Direct consequence of 2-body decay of a rest parent
Nuclear Radiation: Alpha Decay
=
D D
M v M v
o o
,
D D
M M v v
o o
D
T T
o
2 2
1 1
2 2
D D D
T T M v M v
o o o
+ = + =
D
D
D
M M
T T T
M
o
o o
+
+ =
D
D
M
T Q
M M
o
o
=
+

D
D
M
v v
M
o
o
=
2
2
1 1
2 2
D
D
M
M v M v
M
o
o o o
| |
+
|
\ .
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
19
KE of the emitted o must be positive
Thus for an o-decay to occur, it must be an exorthermic
process
For massive nuclei, the daughters KE is


Since , we obtain
Nuclear Radiation: Alpha Decay
-
D
T Q T
o
= =
0, 0 M Q A > >
( )
4 4
D
M M A
o
~
4
4
A
T Q
o

~
4
D
T Q
A
~
D
M
Q
M M
o
o
=
+
D
M
T
M
o
o
T
o
Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
20
Less energetic ones accompany photons
mostly delayed
Indicates quantum energy levels
Parent decays to an excited state of the
daughter after emitting an o

Daughter then subsequently de-excite by
emitting a photon

Difference in the two Q values correspond
to photon energy
Most energetic o-particles produced alone
Parent nucleus decays to the ground state of a daughter
and produces an o-particle whose KE is the entire Q value
Nuclear Radiation: Alpha Decay
A Z
X
4 * 2 A Z
Y

4 * 2 A Z
Y

+
4 2
He
4 2 A Z
Y

+

Monday, Oct. 2, 2006 PHYS 3446, Fall 2006
Jae Yu
21

240
Pu94 decay reaction is

o particles observed with 5.17MeV and 5.12 MeV
Since
We obtain the two Q-values

Which yields photon energy of
Consistent with experimental measurement, 45KeV
Indicates the energy level spacing of order 100KeV for
nuclei
Compares to order 1eV spacing in atomic levels
Nuclear Radiation: o-Decay Example
240 94
Pu
1
240
5.17 5.26
236
Q MeV MeV ~ =
4
A
Q T
A
o
=

2
240
5.12 5.21
236
Q MeV MeV ~ =
1 2
0.05 E Q Q Q MeV

= A = =
236 92
U +
4 2
He
Radioactive Decays 22
Decay and Transmutation of Nuclides
Alpha, o, decay emits a helium nucleus from an
atomic nucleus.
Transmutation of Nuclides in Alpha Decays
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
Alpha Decay
A
P
Z A
4
D
Z
2
4
He
2
How do nuclides transform in alpha decay?
Radioactive Decays 23
Heavy Nuclide alpha emitters

235
U
92

231
Th
90
+
4
o
2
(t

, 7.1310
8
y)

238
U
92

234
Th
90
+
4
o
2
(t

, 4.5110
9
y)

208
Po
84

204
Pb
82
+
4
o
2
(t

, 2.9 y)
Nuclide Transmutation of o Decay
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
How do nuclides transform in alpha
decay? Mass and charge change by
what?
Radioactive Decays 24
light nuclides
5
He
1
n
0
+
4
o
2
(t

, 210
-21
s),

5
Li
1
p
1
+
4
o
2
(t

, ~10
-21
s),
8
Be 2
4
o
2
(t

, 210
-16
s).
Some rare earth (
144
Nd,
146
Sm,
147
Sm,
147
Eu,
...
174
Hf) are o emitters:
144
Nd
140
Ce +
4
o
2
(t

, 510
15
y),

174
Hf
170
Yb +
4
o
2
(t

, 210
15
y).
Nuclide Transmutation of o Decay
A
P
Z

A 4
D
Z 2
+
4
He
2
Radioactive Decays 25
Applications of Radioactive Decay
Kinetic
Nuclide Half life
219
Th
90
1 s
26
Na
11
1s
40
Cl
17
1.4 min
32
P
15
14.3 d
14
C
6
5730 y
235
U
92
7.04x10
8
y
238
U
92
4.46x10
9
y

Half life is not affected by chemical
and physical state of matter.
Dating is an application of radioactive
decay kinetics. Describe the principle
for this method.
Anthropologists, biologists,
chemists, diagnosticians, engineers,
geologists, physicists, and
physicians often use radioactive
nuclides in their respective work.